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Tobacco > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

GAP

A

Good Agricultural Practices

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2
Q

American Tobacco Company

A

Formed by J.D. Duke, ~1890.

Brokered deal with John Bonsack for exclusive use of his rolling machine. Took over four major competitors and came to be known as “The Trust” (monopoly).

Forced locals out of business or into buyout by slashing prices. Absorbed 250+ other companies by 1910.

Dissolved by 1911 for violation of Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890.

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3
Q

King James I

A

“Counterblaste to Tobacco”, 1604.

Disgusted with tobacco which lead to increased taxation… high at first which created black markets, lowered with increase in profit.

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4
Q

George Webb / Joseph Fore

A

Discovered/developed White Burley in 1864/65 in Brown County, Ohio.

Introduced to KY, became predominant burley tobacco type in the state.

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5
Q

James Wilksinson

A

Founded Frankfort in 1786.

Used KY River to ship tobacco to New Orleans in 1787. Duty payments were implemented after a ship seizure was rectified through a secret meeting.

A monopoly of KY tobacco transport to New Orleans was created… then lost in 1788.

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6
Q

John Rolfe

A

Brought seeds of N. tabacum from Bermuda to struggling Jamestown in 1609.

Grows first crop in 1612 and exports to England in 1610.

Exponentially increases production and creates exploding market in Virginia which spread to other colonies.

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7
Q

The Nightriders

A

Vigilante members of The Association, participated in the Black Patch Wars against ‘The Trust’.

Attempted to coerce growers into joining the cause - had success until implementation of scare tactics and violent acts.

Most were never brought to justice.

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8
Q

Burley Tobacco Growers Cooperative

A

Post “Old Pool” -> “New Pool”, 1941.

Still operates as grower cooperative in KY, IN, OH, MO, VA. 75% membership.

Would purchase unwanted tobacco, process it, then sell later. Received low interest government loans for funding.

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9
Q

Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933

A

Set area limitations and loan rates.

Established precedent for paying to NOT produce a crop, eventually leading to control program.

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10
Q

Tobacco Control Program

A

Growers agreed to production quota for guaranteed prices. Graded by federal grader and sold at auction. Unsold tobacco purchased by co-op, sold later.

Brought stability, but improved management through advancements in agriculture lead to overproduction (1955-1970).

Major change in 1971: production limits based on acreage/poundage… 1975 only weight considered for burley.

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11
Q

Factors leading to demise of tobacco program

A

Unpopular with public, even without tax payer support.

Price stability = quota instability. Artificially high leaf price compared to world market (well above production costs).

Cooperative surplus stocks… high stocks of poor quality, with government rescues (‘going to the well too often’).

High lease prices.

Contracting gained strength and market moved away from auctions.

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12
Q

The Buyout

A

FETRA - Fair and Equitable Tobacco Reform Act of 2004.

Ended tobacco program, provided quota owners compensation for value of their quota (complicated for individuals).

Allowed many to exit the industry, with movement towards contract sales direct to tobacco companies.

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13
Q

Effect of The Buyout on Kentucky

A

Burley acres in KY down 35% from 2004.

Westward shift of acreage locations.

Decrease in number of tobacco farms/acreage (but increase in individual acreage/farm).

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14
Q

Describe Black Shank and associated resistance

A

Race 0, 1, 2? breeding efforts focused on multiple genes (horizontal) for increased resistance for all races.

Diagnostic test required to rest resistance to specific race.

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15
Q

Leaf arrangement of tobacco and advantages?

A

3/8 phyllotaxy (9th over 1st)

Whorled leaves promote increased light absorption and, therefore, increased photosynthesis.

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16
Q

Describe environmental conditions that promote best yields/quality

A

Mild temperatures and low (but adequate) rainfall during germination.

Heavier rains during flowering/topping.

Low relative humidity and cool temperatures during curing.

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17
Q

Describe environmental conditions that promote poorest yields/quality

A

Heavy rain and hot temperatures during germination.

Low rainfall during flowering/topping.

High relative humidity and high temperatures during curing.

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18
Q

Discuss dis/advantages of fall fumigation

A

Advantages

  • more favorable weather
  • less time spent waiting for effects

Disadvantages
- length of time pests have to reestablish in bed

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19
Q

Weed that often escapes fumigation?

A

Nutsedge and legumes

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20
Q

Factors driving shift from conventional plant beds to float bed production

A

Uniformity - plants have equal space and access to resources (water, soil, fertilizer, etc).

Less seed used - one seed per cell = less waste

Controlled environment - allows ideal conditions for development

Transplant shock - less trauma to roots when transplanted from float system instead of ripped from soil.

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21
Q

How did the shift to float plants influence other areas of tobacco crop management?

A

Disease and pest management begin in a controlled environment which can lead to healthier transplants taken to the field, increasing yield potential.

Tiered production separated into components, with some producers only growing transplants for sale.

Labor, while still necessary, was needed for less time overall (conventional - weather dictates setting time, float systems - producers make call)

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22
Q

Symptoms of over/under packing trays

A

Over

  • poor germination
  • spiral root

Under

  • poor germination
  • poor wicking
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23
Q

How would you force flowering in tobacco?

A

Terramaster applications.

Low light, cool temperatures.

Four hour night light (incandescent) stops this!

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24
Q

Benefits of clipping transplants

A

promotes uniformity,
increases stem diameter,
increases air and light penetration (reduces disease)

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25
Q

Best management practices for clipping?

A

Start early (1.5 - 2 inches in height) … 4 weeks?

Slow blade speed (decreases pulp residue)

Catch clippings

Wash and sanitize after use

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26
Q

Contributing factors for Spiral root

A

Negative geotropism…

hard seed coat

hot, sunny dry conditions

poorly wicking, compacted media

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27
Q

Management / prevention of spiral root

A

Never produces usable plant… best to avoid.

Do not overpack trays.
Dibble 1/2 inch deep
gently tamp trays after seeding to settle media
cover lightly with media after seeding

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28
Q

Describe the breeding process involved in creating disease resistance.

A

ID traits of interest. Locate source of trait (variability within class, genus, or species). Transfer trait to cultivar with desirable characteristics. Check for presence in offspring…

Pure Line Selection - pick optimal plant in population. Only propagate that plant’s seed.

Backcrossing - F1 hybrids backcrossed with parents.

GE - genetic transfer of material … not accepted by global tobacco industry

Marker Assisted Breeding - ID genetic ‘markers’ to monitor success of conventional breeding. Accepted.

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29
Q

Desired N fertility in float systems?

A

100ppm

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30
Q

Characteristics of vented heating system

A

15-20% heat loss to outside

Larger/heavier inputs per BTU

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31
Q

Characteristics of unvented heating system

A

Added moisture within greenhouse

Increased risk of plant damage during extended run times.

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32
Q

Characteristics of radiant heating system

A

Heats surfaces, not air

Increased risk of plant damage during extended run times.

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33
Q

Goals of greenhouse ventilation systems

A

Maintain control of environmental conditions, particularly temperature and humidity, as to prevent pest/disease issues and promote desirable plant growth.

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34
Q

Should a grower be more concerned about hot or cold temperatures during germination? Why?

A

Hot - can kill seedlings.

Cold - just delays germination.

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35
Q

Double layer vs single layer cover

A

Layer of air between provides cost-effective insulation to help maintain desired internal temperature. Helps reduce condensation and excess moisture inside greenhouse.

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36
Q

Describe White Burley characteristics

A

Pale green leaves with creamy white stalk/veins, open leaf structure.

Easy to handle.

Cures quickly, good quality, no priming necessary.

Well-suited for flavoring additives (up to 25% of weight).

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37
Q

Compare/contrast N. tabacum and N. rustica

A

N. rustica =

  • smaller, darker leaves
  • harsh smoking
  • more nicotine
  • origins in Mexico -> Pacific -> US -> Europe
  • 12 pairs of chromosomes
  • found in the wild.

N. tabacum =

  • larger leaves
  • mild, rich taste
  • less nicotine
  • origins traced to Ecuador/Peru -> Cuba, Venezuela, Panama
  • 24 pairs of chromosomes
  • not found growing wild (result of hybridization).
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38
Q

How did Spindletop get its name?

A

Original owners Miles and Patsy Yount made their fortune in Spindletop oil field in Beaumont, TX.

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39
Q

Botanical classification of tobacco + species #

A

Solanaceae (+tomatoes, potatoes, peppers, some poisonous herbs), Nicotiana, 75+ species

most from N/S America, others from Australia/Asia.

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40
Q

Namesake of tobacco genus

A

Jean Nicot

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41
Q

Jean Nicot

A

introduced tobacco to France in 1560

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42
Q

Tobacco is indigenous to:

A

Americas, Australia, SW Africa, South Pacific

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43
Q

Archaeological evidence suggests use of tobacco by Native Americans dating ____ years ago.

A

4k - 5k

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44
Q

Describe uses of tobacco by Native Americans

A

Largely ceremonial, possible link to worship… use may have been limited to ‘medicine men’.

Confirmation of deals/pacts.

Medicinal practices to help treat toothaches, worms, infections/inflammations, bites, and pain.

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45
Q

First evidence of cultivation in Kentucky?

A

Prior to European arrival, cave and cliff dwellers of central and eastern KY…

‘Modern’ production noted in 1752 with John Finley in Woodford County.

46
Q

Intro to Europeans

A

1st encounter with Christopher Columbus in 1492… rolled leaves called tabacos or snorted powder (cohiba) with tabago

47
Q

Spread to Europe

A

Spanish intro in early 1500s. Jean Nicot intro to France in 1560… proclaimed health benefits pre-1600s… proliferation through 16th - 17th centuries

48
Q

Name of tobacco in West Indies?

A

uppowoc

49
Q

Cohiba

A

powdered tobacco snorted with tabago

50
Q

How was tobacco taxed during the reign of King James I?

A

per hogshead … which is a barrel.

Weight wasn’t factored in, skewed taxes paid on actual weight (600 lb at first - 1 - 1.3k lbs stuffed)

51
Q

First colonial export of tobacco?

A

1610, from Jamestown to England.

52
Q

Describe colonial tobacco production protocols.

A

Jan/Feb - clear, burn, prepare plant beds (sterilize)

March - sow beds, cover with pine boughs, later thinned to 4inch spacing

May - plant fields during rainy period… ‘hills’ every 3 - 4 feet

Weekly cultivation and hand removal of pests, bottom leaves, and suckers… Cut, wilt, and cure similar to today.

53
Q

Implications of tobacco production in colonial times

A

Production was land intensive… and crops rapidly depleted soil.

New land was constantly cleared, leading to westward expansion.

54
Q

John Finley

A

Earliest reported KY tobacco cultivator… 1752 in Woodford County.

55
Q

Why were exports difficult in early production?

A

Isolated areas… River best route, but dangerous due to pirates and natives.

Routes hard to follow with changing channels and water levels.

56
Q

Discovery of flue-curing

A

~1840s

Captain Slade’s slave Stephen discovers dry heat turns tobacco bright yellow -> Bright Leaf Tobacco is born!

57
Q

Bright Leaf

A

Flue-cured. Mild, aromatic. Process discovered in 1840s.

58
Q

How/when did White Burley come into existence?

A

1864 - George Webb and Joseph Fore

Mutant burley.

59
Q

Black shank

A

Oomycete, soil-borne pathogen. Introduced through roots, systemic infection through vascular system. Wilt during day 1st symptom.

60
Q

Three tiered approach to disease management?

A

Rotation, Resistance, Chemical treatments

61
Q

Tobacco seed costs?

A

Roughly static… 10k pack of seed = 1 acre +

Less than $30/pack.

62
Q

Virginia Tobacco Inspection Act of 1730

A

Required inspection for all exports - inferior product was rejected.

Raised Virginia’s status (“the” standard).

63
Q

Marketing conditions prior to Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933

A

Volatile market plagued with repeated cycles of oversupply and uncertain prices.

Shady business practices on both sides. Growers forced to sell at low cost determined by The Trust.

When dissolved, Old Pool marketing practices proved successful until grower membership decreased below required thresholds… which returned volatility to market.

64
Q

How did growers compensate for price decreases? Consequences?

A

Some introduce ‘trash’ weight: leaves, dirt, and floor sweepings. Also ‘nesting’: lesser quality tobacco in middle of bales.

Quality/reputation takes huge hit - inspires VA Tobacco Inspection Act

65
Q

Dominant hogshead market in KY?

A

1825, Louisville.

66
Q

Introduction of pre-rolled cigarettes

A

~1870s. Luxury items. Hand-rolled: 4 cpm

Bonsack, 1880. Machine: 200 cpm

67
Q

John Bonsack

A

Inventor of the first cigarette-rolling machine, capable of producing 200 cigarettes per minute versus hand-rolling at 4 per minute.

68
Q

The Association

A

Formed in 1904 to force better prices.

Began in Black Patch areas of KY and TN. 70% growers joined.

Targeted The Trust with increasingly violent means until 1908.

69
Q

Black Patch War

A

Began Dec. 1, 1906 in Princeton, KY. Lasted through 1908. Between The Association and The Trust.

Three major events:

  1. Princeton, 1906. 200 riders, burned largest tobacco factory in the world.
  2. Hopkinsville, 1907. Burned three warehouses, shot up police station, took over fire department and train depot. 1 rider killed, another wounded.
  3. Russellville, 1908. 55 riders destroyed two factories.
70
Q

“The Trust” holdings by 1910

A

Dominated ~80 - 95% for all categories of smoking products except cigars.

71
Q

The “Big Four”

A

Liggett and Myers
R.J. Reynolds
American Tobacco Company*
Lorillard*

  • absorbed by RJ
72
Q

“American blend”

A

by R.J. Reynolds, 1913. Mixture of Turkish, VA&NC Bright leaf, and White Burley.

Camel - working man’s product, 45% market share by 1922.

73
Q

Philip Morris Company

A

1902, first British tobacco shop opens in US; markets Marlboros to ladies.

1929, purchased cigarette factory in Richmond, VA. Manufactures own smokes, #1 in US and #2 in world.

Marlboro #1 brand worldwide.

74
Q

Events impacting Tobacco Growers, 1964 - 1983

A

1964, Surgeon Generals Report - smoking harmful to health. Changes

1981, companies say farmers can’t produce enough…

1982, farmers overproduce - much of which went to the pool; led to No-Net-Cost Tobacco Program Act.

1983, severe drought, record low yields, poor quality, much went to pool.

75
Q

Tobacco Improvement Act

A

1985, reduced prices = $0.30 per pound. established new formulas to control production. No new quotas issued, pre-existing quotas recalculated based on historical share. Set prices increased.

Established buy out of pool stocks, “erased” bad tobacco from books. Ultra poor quality dumped in landfills.

76
Q

basic vs effective quota

A

basic: determined by formula
effective: actual production

effective has largely exceeded basic every year…

77
Q

No-Net-Cost Tobacco Act

A

No cost to public.

Grower paid 1 cent per pound to no net cost fund, matched by tobacco buyer.

78
Q

US Attitudes on Tobacco use

A

1960/70/80’s - Surgeon Generals report raises awareness of harm in smoking. Mounting medical evidence. Ad restrictions imposed.

1990/2000’s - Anti-smoking activism, mounting legal action against tobacco companies, increased taxes, indoor smoking bans

General decline in use after plateau in 70s/80s … worldwide consumption still going up!

79
Q

Master Settlement Agreement

A

1998… two phases.

Phase 1 - companies reimburse states for medical expenses related to treating smoking related diseases. forced restrictions and anti-smoking program funding. funded by cig price increases.

Phase 2 - companies agree to additional payments to tobacco growing states to be paid to growers to offset expected losses due to price increases. Payments ended with the Buyout in 2004.

80
Q

which countries export the most tobacco to the US?

A

Argentina, Brazil (quality), Africa (filler)

81
Q

The Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act

A

2009 - FDA regulates tobacco (marketing, manufacture, distribution)… but no direct authority over tobacco production.

82
Q

Characteristics of nicotine

A

in plants, anti-herbivore and natural insecticide

in mammals…
+: alertness, memory, calmness, appetite suppression
-: increased blood pressure, heart rate, dependency

83
Q

Lineage of Nicotiana tabacum

A

Natural interspecific hybrid:
N. sylvestris + N. tomentosiformis = N. tabacum parents.

Allotetraploid: four genomes, two sets coming from different species than others… full set of chromosomes from each parent species.

84
Q

Floral characteristics

A

complete, perfect flowers. highly self-pollinated. natural outcrossing limited.

85
Q

Alkaloid production in burley

A

two loci control… nornicotine most common alkaloid in N. species except N. tabacum… may have lost ability to convert?

86
Q

Desirable characteristics in breeding objectives

A

Pest resistance - degrees… immunity, single gene traits are easy to overcome; tolerance, multiple genes, often additive.

Increased yield (weight)

improved quality (visual, future focus on leaf chem)

ease of handling (upright leaves)

87
Q

When did tobacco hybridization begin in the US?

A

1950s… allowed immediate incorporation of desirable traits in one generation.

88
Q

heterosis

A

hybrid vigor

89
Q

Regional Variety Test Program

A

New varieties must meet standards…

  • genetically stable
  • comparable to check varieties in terms of physical characteristics (% usable leaf, grade index) and chemical composition (nicotine, nitrogen levels)
  • smoke panel (phased out?)
90
Q

Current/Future Breeding efforts

A

Leaf chemistry - harm reduction, flavor enhancement

mechanical harvest characteristics - reduced sucker potential, upright leaves

Pest resistance

91
Q

Criteria for burley variety selection

A

variety resistance matched to disease potential

high yields across range of environments

consistent quality

manageability

92
Q

conventional ground beds and practices

A

used from colonial times to early 1900s… required burning, steaming, or fumigation in fall.

seed bed prep in Feb/Mar … sow in Mar/Apr … transplant/thin in May

93
Q

effects of conventional transplants on crop growth and management

A

management = limiting factor…

amount transplanted
- pull in am, delay until after hottest part of day, transplant late afternoon

time of transplanting
- growth controlled by weather, often delayed due to plant size (May/June), rainy weather causes unchecked growth in bed

transplant shock
- differences in sizes resulted in variable recovery and crop uniformity

94
Q

benefits of float systems

A

producer has better control over growth (temps)

timing - can set all day = more set/day = more time for other activities

minimal transplant shock

more uniformity

95
Q

disadvantages of float systems

A

allows producers to set more than they can manage

tends to set shallow (less of an issue nowdays)

increased disease risk (high humidity) in greenhouse

96
Q

When did float systems take over?

A

~1988 … complete changeover in mid 90’s.

97
Q

stalk positions and associated leaf names

A

low - flyings

med - lugs

upper mid - leaf

top - tips

98
Q

effects of root growth before and after transplanting…

A

bottom line: water roots are not significantly impactful for accelerated growth after transplanting

99
Q

dis/advantages of in/outdoor float systems

A 
Greenhouse
- higher investment
\+ higher usability
\+ less risk
\+ greater uniformity
\+ more control
Outside bed
\+ lower investment
- lower usability
- increased risk (weather loss)
- labor (clipping, spraying)
100
Q

impacts of water quality

A

issues with high alkalinity

do not use untreated water (ponds, creeks, etc)

101
Q

most common size tray?

A

242 and 288

compromise between maximizing plants per unit area and final transplant size

102
Q

issues with polystyrene trays

A

roots can permeate pores and harbor disease

limited life - weathering … UV, wear and tear

environmental footprint

103
Q

media characteristics

A

solid particles…

pore space:
large - drainage, air occupies center pores
small - capillaries (water wicking)

104
Q

Why is proper tray filling critical?

A

becomes heavy and water-logged (>8lbs diagnostic)… can sink

floats low in water with excessive algae growth

Poor growth (yellowed) and increased presence of spiral root

“light and loose is best - let gravity do the work!”

105
Q

Calculating water volume

A

trays * depth of water * 1.64

ex.
759 * 4.5 * 1.64 = 5600 gal

106
Q

Calculate N fertility

A

Want 100ppm, using 20-10-20. 520 trays, 4” deep. lbs of fertilizer?

520 * 4 * 1.64 = 3411.2 gal

3411.2 gal * 8.34 lb/gal = 28449.408 lbs

(1/10,000) … 100ppm = 2.84 lbs / .20 N = 14.2

Need 14.2 lbs 20-10-20

107
Q

sources of N

A

nitrate - best, readily available form

ammonium - marginal

urea - worst, can convert to ammonia or nitrite (toxic)

108
Q

Conductivity measurements…

A

measures electrical flow in mS (milli-Siemens)

Take reading of source, take reading of fert water, check conductivity chart

ex.
1.4 (fert) - 0.4 (source) = 1.0 mS
from chart, @ 1.0 mS = 150 ppm N

109
Q

insect pests of float systems

A

variegated cut worms (sig damage in short time, only at night)

shoreflies/fungus gnats (nuisance)

aphids

flea beetles

blood worms (feed on algae, not tobacco)

slugs

mice

sow bugs

110
Q

control of insect pests in float systems

A

Monitor regularly

baits and habitat destruction

spray with acephate (Orthene)

Tobacco (3 decks)

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