Exam 1 Flashcards
Ways to be successful in COM 230
- Learn the language of argumentation and debate
- Use all available learning resources
- Avoid stupidity
- Make connections
- Practice mindful use of learning skills
Critical Thinking: Thinking Fast and Slow by Daniel Kahneman
System 1: Fast; operates automatically and quickly with little effort
System 2: allocates attention to the effortful mental activities that demand it; requires more energy, effort and focus
Definitions of argument
Exchange of divergent or opposing views
Set of statements presenting a claim/conclusion & reasons/premises to persuade an audience
Logical literacy & making good arguments (deLaplante)
Clarity and precision in language use Powerful small words Arrangement of words in a statement Clear definitions as a tool for reasonable arguments (Johnson) Vagueness Ambiguity
Deductive arguments
Logical process by which we move from something we already all agree to be true to the application of this general truth to a particular case
Ex: (e.g., Killing people is always wrong; capital punishment involves killing people; therefore, capital punishment is always wrong).
Inductive arguments
the logical process in which we proceed from particular evidence to a conclusion which, on the basis of that evidence, we agree to be true or probably true Empirical reasoning (scientific)
Abductive reasoning
logical inference which goes from an observation to a theory which accounts for the observation, ideally seeking to find the simplest and most likely explanation.
Syllogism
two statements and conclusion
Standard form-syllogism
- All tigers are mammals
- Tony is a tiger
Therefore, Tony is a mammal
Hidden assumptions
premises applied rather than stated
Categorical Arguments
All & No (none) vs most & some
All x’s are y; 2 is an x. Therefore, y is 2
Conditional arguments
If, then statements If X, then Y Modus ponens If Y, then X Modus tollens
Antecedent
the clause that follows the “if” is the antecedent;
Consequent
the other clause is the consequent.
the antecedent is a sufficient condition on the consequent and the consequent is a necessary condition on the antecedent.
Disjunctive arguments
Either X or Y
Either X is true or Y is true
If X is true then Y is not true
Truth condition
Must be plausible
Applies to statements in the argument
Logic condition
Glue that binds our premises and conclusions together or ensures our conclusion follows from the premises
Applies to the whole argument
Entailment and follows form
Valid argument: validity
Certainty If the conclusion does not follow the premises it is invalid Strong argument High probability Validity does not equal truth
Types of differences to manage in democratic decision making
Use controversial questions and propositions to identify the positions taken by opposing or contrasting sides (affirmative vs negative)
Calls for examining the argument from both sides can present in their cases to avoid confirmation bias and bad arguments
Dissoi logoi as contrastic arguments
Helps reduce confirmation bias
Abraham Lincoln spent most of his time thinking about the other sides argument
Aristotle said we must be able to examine arguments on opposing sides
Protagoras: “for every argument there is an equal and weighty counter argument”
Approach to dissoi logoi by protagoras, aristotle and Abraham Lincoln
Confirmation bias:
when we only think and read material that supports our side
Debate:
using good arguments in seeking a reason-based judgement or decision on a proposition or controversy from an audience of decision makers (3rd party audience)
Deliberation:
using good arguments to understand issues and manage differences in making collaborative decisions on a proposition or controversy (audience is those deliberating)
Controversy:
a question identifying opposing positions regarding a belief, practice or policy
Proposition:
a statement or declarative sentence that (a) indicates the key issues in a controversy regarding a belief, practice or policy and (b) expresses the judgement regarding that issue we are asking decision makers to accept, such as a change to existing belief, practice or policy
Status quo:
the existing context, situation or state of affairs about a controversial belief, practice or policy
Affirmative position:
those advocating change to an existing belief, practice, or policy (i.e., the status quo) who most often have the burden of proof
Audience:
those who will render a decision on the proposition
Presumption:
the advantage most often given to the side seeking to maintain the status quo when proposals for change are made
Burden of proof:
the obligation of those advocating change to provide sufficient arguments to overcome the presumption of existing beliefs, practices or policies (i.e., the status quo)
Burden of response or rebuttal:
the obligation to respond, rebut, or refute arguments that challenge, harm or weaken one’s position
Role of the supreme court in interpreting the constitution
Hears arguments, deliberates, and votes to reach majority on case
Uses written opinions to provide rationales for its decisions
Protected by the first amendment
Burning the flag, burning crosses, protest at the funeral of a service member killed in combat
Not protected by the first amendment
Fighting words Obscenity Child pornography Slander Threats
Claims made by holmes and brandeis in their opinions for landmark cases
Abrams vs. United States; Holmes: the best way to prove an idea or thought true is to practice the freedom of speech
Reply: If there is an extreme situation freedom of speech should be checked, otherwise it should be protected
Schenck vs United States; Brandeis: Someone falsely shouting fire and inciting a panic would be an expression that presented a “clear and present danger”
Whitney vs. California; Brandeis: the best remedy for “noxious doctrine” and “evil counsels” is through shared thought.
Dangers of unnecessary or repressive restrictions
Repression breeds hate which creates an unstable government
Definition of a case:
a set of well-developed arguments arranged in a structure and presented through a medium appropriate to the audience of decision makers and to the situation in which the case will be presented
Invention:
principles for identifying what we could say and deciding what we should say to influence the audience in this situation
Arrangement:
principles for structuring and organizing what we should say to influence the audience in this situation
Style
principles for using language clearly, appropriately, accurately and vividly to influence the audience (words we use)
Memory:
principles for recalling effectively what we planned to say to the audience and to make what we say memorable to the audience
Delivery:
principles for using our voice and body to communicate persuasively with the audience (how we say the words)
Working outline
For using invention and arrangement
Polishing outline
For using arrangement and style
Speaking outline
For using memory and delivery
Purpose (speech):
what you are trying to do as a speaker
Inform, persuade or entertain
Objective
How you want your audience to respond to your presentation
Subject
what area of experience is our overall argument dealing with?
Focus:
What particular part of this general subject area is your overall argument focusing on?
Thesis:
what is the argumentative opinion, central claim, overall conclusion, or proposition from the focus that you want your audience to accept?
problem- solution structure
Three claims to use with the problem-solution structure
We are facing a significant problem
I have a solution to that problem
You should implement my solution (thesis)
