Exam 1 Flashcards
most abundant organic compound
cellulose
PLC-PKC pathway
PLC (phospholipase-c) cuts phosphatidyl inositol in the membrane and gives two secondary messengers – IP3 and DAG
chaperones
Proteins that assist in protein folding during posttranslational processing
sterol
- 4-ring system
- planar structure
- non-polar tail
most amino acids in what form?
L-form
unit membrane hypothesis
Danielli-Davson model
rough endoplasmic reticulum
System of internal membranes within the cytoplasm. Membranes are rough due to the presence of ribosomes. functions in transport of substances such as proteins within the cytoplasm
transport proteins often have ____ core
hydrophilic
raises in LDH levels indicates what?
raises in 1 and 2 means trouble (heart troubles); raises in 4 and 5 are normal post-exercise
size exclusion chromatography
separates proteins by size of their native conformation; chemically inert beads in column with crevasses through them – smaller proteins take longer to come out and larger proteins come out first
kinase
An enzyme that phosphorylates something else. Kinases are frequently used in regulatory pathways, phosphorylating other enzymes.
Glyoxysomes
specialized peroxisomes in plants responsible for converting stored fats into sugars
Slow wasting diseases
Scrapie (sheep), Kuru, Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (Mad Cow Disease), Chronic Wasting Disease
positive amino acids
Arginine, Histidine, Lysine
intermediate filaments
plays structural role; includes lamins, keratins, desmin, cytokeratin
Proteasomes
protein complex that recognizes and destroys ubiquinated proteins tagged for elimination
GPI anchor
can attach proteins to cell membrane; modifying inositol with sugars for proteins on extracellular leaflet
Dicer
enzyme that cleaves and processes double-stranded RNA to produce siRNAs or miRNAs
Euchromatic
loosely packed and associated with areas of the DNA that are being expressed
palmitic acid
C16, saturated
finding an enzyme on a gel
can add a substrate that interacts with said enzyme to the gel; will give indication of position
80s ribosomes respond to
cycloheximide
ribosome structure
made of small subunit and large subunit; 3-4 rRNAs and 50+ proteins
vacuoles more expressed when:
when they are stressed
energy organelles in plant cells
chloroplasts and mitochondria (oxidative phosporylation and photophosphorylation)
70s ribosomes respond to
chloramphenicol
LDH in heart muscles
LDH-1 and LDH-2
amino acid as zwitterion
N with + and carboxl with -
where are vesicles made
ER
ways to denature a protein
urea (breaks up hydrogen bonding) and heat
Tay-Sachs caused by lack of _____
gangliosidase
membrane accommodation ratio of cholesterol to phospholipid
1 to 1
Western Blot
used to identify specific amino-acid sequences in proteins; Visualize using radioactive probes (antibodies) that are complementary to proteins
SDS Page staining used
coomassie blue – stains all proteins; silver stain for small samples
amphipathic alpha helix
alpha helix side groups are of mixed character between non-polar and charged/polar groups
disulfide bridge protein structure level
tertiary
confluent growth
Growth covering a complete area; individual colonies cannot be distinguished
Tay-Sachs
An inherited genetic disease that is caused by lack of and enzyme necessary to break down lipids necessary for normal brain function and results in seizures, blindness, and early death; common in Ashkenazi Jews; lacks Hex-A in lysosomes
autophagy
A process in which cells recycle their own organic material through the use of hydrolytic enzymes.
TNBS
- reacts with phospholipids
- makes the phospholipid more soluble
- TNBS cannot go through the membrane
proteins made by rough er
membrane-bound proteins and secreted proteins that are modified
nuclear lamina
A netlike array of protein filaments lining the inner surface of the nuclear envelope; it helps maintain the shape of the nucleus.
culture growth of stem cells where feeder layer supports growth stem cell growth
feeder layer made of fibroblasts, good for experimental use but not good for clinical since fibroblasts aren’t coming from humans
when does nuclear envelope disintegrates
prophase
Horseradish peroxidase: colorless → _____
brown
siRNA
small interfering RNA. siRNA is endogenous or exogenous. Exhibits perfect base pairing with target mRNA. Silences specific mRNA via cleavage and degradation.
autophagosomes
secondary lysosomes that are involved in the digestion of a cell’s own organelles. the metabolites obtained through the intracellular digestion are reutilized within the cell’s cytoplasm
of amino acids
20
flow cytometry / FACS use with cell cyle
can get cells that are from specific phases of the cell cycle; use DAPI or ethidium bromide to bind to DNA to make them fluorescent
SDS-PAGE problems
- difficult to make gel - agarose is too large - polyacrylamide gel – polymerization has to be anoxic - only view 100 most abundant protein - disrupts proteins
tubulin differences among eukaryotes
highly conserved across eukaryotes
histone
protein molecule around which DNA is tightly coiled in chromatin
microfilaments
Thinnest elements of the cytoskeleton. Made of semiflexible protein actin. Involved in cell motility.
at physiological pH, which amino acids are negative and which are positive
negative = Asp, Glu positive = Lys, Arg
eukaryotic flagella structure
9+2
examples of established cell lines
embryonic cells and cancer cells
LDH in skeletal muscle
LDH-4 and LDH-5
ion exchange column (chromatography)
uses difference in charge for separating; beads in column are charged; proteins bind with different affinities based on charge
adherent dependent cells and what we do about it
Cells from tissue are dissociated with trypsin or collagenase and grown as monolayer (fibroblast) or suspension
baculovirus
a virus containing a gene of interest that is used to infect insect cell lines, which then express the protein at high levels
kinase inhibitor
Molecule that resembles ATP and blocks active site (competitive)
problems with the Danielle-Davson model
- membrane would have been too thick; 2. freeze-fracture showed presence of integral proteins, but DD thought proteins were all peripheral; 3. doesn’t account for hydrophobicity – having hydrophobic proteins outside of membrane would be interacting with hydrophilic aqueous environment, which is not likely
golgi
A system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell
transduction
using virus to transfer DNA into cell; we use lentiviral vectors which are unarmed viruses and work retrovirally
flippase enzyme
flips phospholipid from outer to inner leaflet
Enzyme embedded in plasma membrane; functions to move lipids from one face to the other
hydrophobicity and charges of a single-pass integral membrane
hydrophobic amino acids on part of protein going through the membrane, charged amino acids at the edges just past the membrane at the phospholipid phosphate ends
creator of 2D gels
O’Farrel
microbodies
lysosomes, peroxisomes, glyoxysomes
FACS - fluorescence activated cell sorter (flow cytometry)
tube so thin that cells line up single file; laser beam focused on tube – counts cells and can detect color of cell; can program set-up to dispose of a certain color of cells, cells diverted by having a charge added to them
2D electrophoresis
a type of electrophoresis that is the combination of SDS-PAGE and isoelectric focussing; done if 2 proteins possess similar MWs or pIs
density gradient centrifugation
Separation based on density; tube with increasing density of sucrose; homogenate pipetted on top; spin; organelles travel down tube until reached just above layer that is denser than it
affinity column
a column filled with beads that have substrate affixed to it; the only proteins that remain in the column are the proteins that interact with the substrate
Prosthetic Groups
Tightly-bound cofactors or coenzymes necessary for enzyme function (e.g. iron in hemoglobin)
prion
Any of various infectious proteins that are abnormal forms of normal cellular proteins, that proliferate by inducing the normal protein to convert to the abnormal form, and that in mammals include pathogenic forms.
domains
part of a protein that has a specific function and conserved structure; Shows that proteins have not been developed from scratch, but used one base that worked well and built off/deviated from that; Kinase domains, transmembrane domain, signal domain
metazoan
multicellular
growth method if we worry that trypsin will degrade proteins
can use a plate that cells be by easily scraped off of
length of integral protein transmembrane span in amino acids
20-25 amino acids
phalloidin
binds actin
largest cell in human
human egg (0.1 mm)
average molecular weight of amino acids
115 kDa
protein movement in a membrane
move around quickly and fluidly
of a.a. per turn alpha-helix
3.6
“single pass”
transmembrane protein that passes through the membrane once
open cells for cell fractionation need to be:
isotonic, buffered, chilled
Nickel Column (immobilized metal affinity chromatography)
Nickel columns are used for immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC) for the purification of recombinant proteins with a polyhistidine tag on either terminus. The most common tag is a hexahistidine tag (6xHis tag or His6 tag). A recombinant protein with a 6xHis tag has a high affinity for nickel, whereas most other proteins will either bind with low affinity, or not at all.
MPF
A cyclin-Cdk complex that causes the cell to move from interphase into mitosis.
zwitterion
Amphoteric (reacts as acid or base) compound with no net electric charge.
mitochondria
Enclosed by two membranes with the inner membrane folded; contains its own naked, circular DNA
primary cell line
A line of tissue culture cells created directly from the tissue itself. Can be passed a limited number of times (Hayflick limit)
sphingomyelin structure
phosphate and choline at carbon 3
model organism: bacteria
conjugation, metabolism, cell cycle, proteins
membrane synthesis in bacteria
cytoplasmic leaflet of the plasma membrane
CMC
critical micelle concentration (CMC) is defined as the concentration of surfactants above which micelles form and all additional surfactants added to the system go to micelles.
nucleolus
The organelle where ribosomes are made, synthesized and partially assembled, located in the nucleus
amyloid protein
an abnormal protein in the brain of patients with alzheimers disease; Changes the activity of TAU which makes microtubules that transport vesicles down an axon
baculovirus in human cell lines
can get DNA into humans, but cannot reproduce in human i.e. cannot infect human
amount of inner membrane compared to outer membrane
10x more internal membrane in total than plasma membrane
rubisco
(ribulose carboxylase) is the enzyme that catalyses the first step of photosynthesis (probably the most abundant protein on Earth).
peptide bond stability
peptide bonds have resonance, rotate around alpha-carbon
isoenzyme / isozyme
enzymes that catalyse the same reaction but are encoded by different genes
primary structure
order of amino acids bases
marker enzyme: cytosol
Phosophofructokinase
tubulin
globular protein composing microtubules
ubiquination in cell division
Cyclin is ubiquinated and MPF targets
non-covalent interactions (4)
Ionic bonds, Hydrogen bonds, Van der Waals forces, and the hydrophobic effect
electroporation
A technique to introduce recombinant DNA into cells by applying a brief electrical pulse to a solution containing the cells. The pulse creates temporary holes in the cells’ plasma membrane, through which DNA can enter.
cytoskeletal filaments (3)
- microfilaments; 2. microtubules 3. intermediate filaments
beta-pleated sheets
polypeptide backbone with kinks; 3.4 a.a. per turn
Danielli and Davson
measured surface tension of lipid droplets in artificial plasma membrane they made and found that it did not match actual cell; added proteins and found that tension matched better; inaccurately believed that proteins sit on the membrane on internal and external surfaces
where are membranes produced?
smooth ER
examples of chaperones
Hsp 70 and Hsp 90, BIP in ER
callus
cells growing out of control; consistency of apple sauce; could get callus from one plant and clone millions of copies expressions of genes in cultured cells
transient expression vs. stable expression
transient – no DNA insertion into host genome, DNA lost after cell division, quick and easy but not control over protein expression stable – DNA inserted into host genome, selection pressure to maintain plasmid
smooth ER
Fats and lipid metabolism; Phospholipid membrane factory of the cell
marker enzyme: peroxisome
catalase
cholesterol
A steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids.
model organism: virus
protein transport, DNA/protein synthesis
chromosome locations
controlled in the nucleus
beta barrel
large beta-sheet that twists and coils to form a closed structure in which the first strand is hydrogen bonded to the last. Beta-strands in beta-barrels are typically arranged in an antiparallel fashion.
freeze-fracture process for studying membranes
cells frozen with liquid nitrogen then hit with hammer; break along frozen line so lipids stay intact –> showed that there are membrane-spanning proteins in a membrane
what animal cells have that plant cell doesn’t
plant cells have everything that animal cells have
stearic acid
C18, saturated
chromatin
Substance found in eukaryotic chromosomes that consists of DNA tightly coiled around histones
passaging a culture / splitting a culture
a subculture is a new cell or microbiological culture made by transferring some or all cells from a previous culture to fresh growth medium. This action is called subculturing or passaging the cells. Subculture is used to prolong the life and/or expand the number of cells or microorganisms in the culture.
transient transfection
inducing genes in a mammalian cell culture, cDNA placed in a plasmid vector of viral origin of replication … cultured cells are transfected … some will retain the plasmid and some will lose it … protein from the cDNA in the plasmid DNA expressed in transfected cells
saturated lipid
contains all single bonds between carbons in long fatty acid chains; usually solid at room temperature
isoelectric focusing (IEF)
separates proteins based on charge; uses a pH gradient; protein stops when isoelectric point (pI) matches pH
acidic amino acids
Asp, Glu
homoviscous adaptation found in:
bacteria, plants, protozoa, hibernating animals, poikilothermic animals
nuclear envelope
Double membrane perforated with screen-like pores that control the flow of materials in and out of the nucleus.
Southern Blot
Detects specific regions of DNA by running the DNA through a gel matrix and using a labeled nucleic acid probe that binds to a specific region of the genome
T-flask
used for growing culture; named by the size of area on bottom i.e. T-25 is one with 25 cm^2 area on the bottom
model organism: roundworm (metazoan)
C. elegans; very few cells (929) so cells can be mapped; used in discovery of apoptosis process and genes
amino acids and alpha helix – good and not good
ala is good. lys is bad because of charge. trp is bad because too big. proline bad because makes bend.
1st protein sequenced
insulin with Fred Sanger via Edman degradation
70s ribosomes found in
prokaryotic cells
peripheral proteins
are not embedded in the lipid bilayer at all. Instead, the are loosely bound to the surface of the protein, often connected to integral proteins or fatty tail
hydrophobicity of cholesterol
cholesterol is amphipathic
who refined the SDS-PAGE test
Laemmli
unsaturated lipid
contains one double bond between two carbons in long fatty acid chains; usually liquid at room temperature
Hsp discoverty
o Radioactively label newly synthesized amino acids, follow them in order to determine new protein → view using Autoradiography • Increase temp near 40 degrees Celsius and most proteins were not observed (denatured) but saw lots of heat shock proteins (HSP) o Fruit Flies • Use 3H-leu or 35S-met
model organism: zebrafish
transparent embryo
blood cell growth – adherant?
blood cells don’t adhere to anything – grow well in tubes
disadvantage of monolayer cell growth and how to combat this
monolayer of cells is not physiologically similar to in vivo environment; can grow cells in 3D culture –> get clumps of cells growing instead which is more realistic
phosphatidic acid
common precursor for both triacylglycerols and glycerophospholipids; acts asa bridge to connect other molecules
test used to find LDH (lactate dehydrogenase)
isoelectric focusing and substrate added to gel
Prpc vs. Prpsc
Prpc: normal version (primarily alpha-helix); Prpsc: infected version (conformational change in secondary and tertiary structures) –> accumulation of rigid B-pleated sheets
lipofectamine
essentially phospholipids that coat DNA and make a micelle of coated DNA; can then meet up with cell and get DNA into the cell
how to remove bound proteins in ion exchange chromatography
use high salt. concentration fluid
acylation
acyl contains a double bonded oxygen atom and an alkyl group; process of adding this group
hydrophobic interaction columns (HIC)
uses the properties of hydrophobicity to separate proteins from one another. In this type of chromatography, hydrophobic groups such as phenyl, octyl, or butyl, are attached to the stationary column.
heterochromatic
transcriptionally inactive DNA; tightly wound
gene families
Groups of related genes within an organism’s genome as a result of molecular phylogenies that have taken into account repeated duplications
column chromatography
uses a column with packed material to separate proteins; helpful for getting a lot of a particular protein
secondary structure
The second level of protein structure; the regular local patterns of coils or folds of a polypeptide chain; a-helix and B-pleated sheets
disulfide bridge
Strong covalent bonds formed when the sulfur of one cysteine monomer bonds to the sulfur of another cysteine monomer.
fluorography and new proteins
Fluorography → Newly Synthesized Proteins; Use radioisotopes (3H-leu and 35S-met) → put gel on x-ray film using autoradiography
ribosomes membrane-bound?
no
Robertson
observed train track appearance in cell membrane
weak bonds characterized by:
need large quantity for strength, short distances, complimentary shape, lots of surface touching, occur spontaneuosly
integral proteins
penetrate the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer, often completely spanning the membrane (as transmembrane proteins).
telling monomers and dimers apart in SDS-PAGE
can’t tell the difference between monomer and dimer – need a native gel to tell the difference
marker enzyme: lysosome
Acid Phosphatase
phospholipids
glycerol + 2 fatty acids + 1 phosphate group; makes up membrane bilayers of cells; hydrophobic interiors and hydrophillic exteriors
lysosome
an organelle in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells containing degradative enzymes enclosed in a membrane.
CAAX
c = cysteine to be prenylated a.a. = alipathic amino acid x = determines enzyme specificity
microtubules
A hollow rod composed of tubulin proteins that makes up part of the cytoskeleton in all eukaryotic cells and is found in cilia and flagella; guides on which vesicles move within the cell
membrane component that is an indicator of an apoptotic cell
phosphatidyl serine is normally found in the inner leaflet of the cell, but an apoptotic cell expresses it on the outer membrane
amino acid from which proteins get hydrogen when phosphorylated
serine, threonine, tyrosine
experiment that showed protein movement in membrane
human membrane with human proteins was attached to a mouse membrane with mouth proteins; could see that the human and mouse proteins intermixed quickly –> fluidity of cell membrane proteins
“cells are sugar-coated”
see lots of glycosylated membrane-bound proteins, cell surface has lots of glycosylation and surface markers made of sugar
quarternary protein
functional subunits
things often added to phosphatidic acid on phospholipid
serine (phosphatidyl serine) , choline (phosphatidyl choline), inositol (phosphatidyl inositol), ethanolamine (phosphatidyl ethanolamine)
oleic acid
C18, unsaturated
marker enzyme: mitochondria
Succinate dehydrogenase
erythrocyte membrane
devoid of internal membrane; nice source of outer membrane
percentage of proteins misfolded
o 30% error in the process (has mistakes) → quickly degraded • half-life about 10 min
Stanley Prusiner
discovered and isolated prions
homoviscous adaptation
Ability to maintain optimal membrane fluidity in the face of drastic temperature change. Most commonly achieved by increasing the ratio of unsaturated vs. saturated fatty acids in membrane when environment temperature drops.
cationic exchange chromatography
bead is negative
where are beta-pleated sheets found
structural proteins (silk fibroin)
why can cholesterol get into membrane so easily?
looks enough like phospholipid that it can fit into the cell membrane; amphipathic nature
glycoprotein functions
- membrane stability (resist protease attack)
- cell-cell recognition
phosphatidyl inositol importance
cell signaling
Reasons for Viewing Actin as a Control
Use actin as a loading control in order to ensure the same amount of protein is loaded into each lane → equal size bands b/c actin and tubulin are housekeeping genes which should always have the same amount
SDS PAGE
This is a specific type of gel electrophoresis for proteins. SDS (sodium dodecyl sulfate) is used to denature the proteins into their primary form and surround them with negative charges. The proteins are then placed into a gel (polyacrylamide) and run through gel electrophoresis. The smallest proteins will travel the most amount of distance towards the positive pole, while the largest proteins will travel the least amount of distance; logarithmic separation
double unit membrane organelles
nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts
membrane asymmetry
composition of inner membrane much different from the composition of the outer leaflet
prenylation
posttranslational modification involving addition of lipid groups to certain membrane bound enzymes
tonoplast
membrane that surrounds the large vacuole in a mature plant cell
model organism: plant
arabidopsis thaliana – whole genome is known
ceramide
The simplest sphingolipid, with a single hydrogen as its head group.
differential centrifugation
Procedure for separating cellular components according to their size and density by spinning a cell homogenate in a series of centrifuge runs. After each run, the supernatant is removed from the deposited material (pellet) and spun again at progressively higher speeds.
antibody-affinity column
an affinity column that uses an antibody to interact with the proteins
Super-Secondary Structure s
certain combinations are present in many proteins and frequently exhibit similar functions; motifs and domains
quantifying phospholipid synthesis
can radioactive phosphate tag glycerol phosphate labeled newly synthesized phospholipids
membrane composition diversity
depends on where on membrane we’re looking
nonionic detergent
- helps with solubility without denaturing
- helps lift proteins up into aqueous environment
phase transition temperature of membrane caused by:
- length of fatty acid
- degree of saturation of hydrocarbon chains
- cholesterol
density gradient centrifugation without sucrose
use a couple of long polymers to get osmotic pressure; Ficoll-Paque
fluorography
A method used to visualize substances present in gels, blots or other biochemical separations. In fluorography, radioactively labeled substances emit radiation that excites a molecule known as fluor.
RISC
RNA induced silencing complex; large protein complex incorporated by the miRNA to target mRNAs because of the base pairing rule
tertiary structure
how distant regions of a protein interact with one another
microns in a millimeter
100 microns in 1 mm
mercaptoethanol
reducing agent to break disulfide bonds
crista of mitochondria
Infoldings of the inner membrane of a mitochondrion that houses the electon transport chain and the enzyme catalyzing the synthesis of ATP.
exosomes
cells can release small vesicles and on the vesicles they will have small receptors that can attach to other cells, thus allowing the release of the vesicles content into the second cell
advantage of isoelectric focusing
proteins not denatured
Alkaline Phosphatase: colorless → _____
blue
Hsp 70
blocks hydrophobic patches from interacting with 1-another → prevents misfold
peripheral proteins
The proteins of a membrane that are not embedded in the lipid bilayer; they are appendages loosely bound to the surface of the membrane.
fluorescence microscopy
Make membrane permeable with a detergent and label with a fluorescent antibody
Northern Blot
Similar technique [to Southern], except that Northern blotting involves radioactive DNA probe binding to sample RNA .
alpha-helix left or right handed
right-handed
model organism: yeast
single cell eukaryote, cell division and mutant searching, cell cycle control genes; Saccharomyces cerevisiae
model organism: mammal
mouse
example of super-coiled alpha-helix
collagen
Singer - Nicolson
proposed fluid mosaic model with integral proteins
beta-pleated sheet favored by what amino acid
glycine
lipid rafts
Specific proteins and lipids can gather into specific regions of a biological membrane to perform specific functions such as cell signaling or transport functions; specialized domains often form lipid rafts.
vesicle production to outside of cell travel routes
travels through ER-Golgi axis and secretion vesicle formed then exocytosis
cell ultrastructure
structures that are too small to be seen with a optical microscope; needs beam of e- to penetrate tissue
most prominent protein in humans
collagen
hydrophobic amino acids
Alanine (Ala), Valine (Val), Isoleucine (Ile), Leucine (Leu), Methionine (Met), Phenylalanine (Phe), Tryptophan (Trp)
established cell culture
a permanently established cell culture that will proliferate indefinitely given appropriate fresh medium and space. lines differ from cell strains in that they have escaped the Hayflick limit and become immortalised
amphipathic
molecule with hydrophilic and hydrophilic areas
insulin secreted by:
pancreas
peptide bond formation
covalent linkage between two amino acid units in a polypeptide - formed through dehydration between two amino acids
Controlled Degradation of Damaged Proteins
Proteasomes w/ ubiquitin labeling
matrix of mitochondria
where krebs cycle takes place; innermost part of mitochondria
peroxisomes
catalases used to neutralize reactive oxygen species
CDK
Cyclin-dependent kinase, regulate cell cycle. Require a cyclin to function
ganglioside
more than one sugar on #3 carbon
sphingolipids
Have a sphingosine or sphingoid backbone. They have a long-chain, nonpolar fatty acid tail, and polar head group
80s ribosomes found in
eukaryotic
Gortner and Grendel
discovered membrane has bilayer; estimated surface layer of cells and added phospholipids to surface of water and found that surface of water covered was double what was predicted –> indicated bilayer
flow cytometry / FACS with cell surface markers
can use fluorescent antibodies to mark cell surface of cells and can then separate using FACS
specialized container with two layers of media
can have a specialized container for growth that has an apical medium above and a basal medium below
integral proteins
Typically transmembrane proteins with hydrophobic regions that completely span the hydrophobic interior of the membrane.
plant cell components not found in animal cells
cell wall, chloroplasts, prominent vacuoles (small, infrequent vacuoles in animal cells)
Alternate Shorter Method of Western Blot used for common proteins
o Use primary anti-body with a dye attached such as cy-5 that is lab created; • Only exist for very common proteins and are expensive; o OR, more practical (still expensive), use secondary anti-body w/ dye; • Goat anti-rabbit-antibody that binds all rabbit antibodies
SDS
Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate; a detergent that is known to denature proteins; long hydrophobic tail; makes a protein’s hydrophobic area more hydrophilic
motif
repeated patterns of secondary structures for a distinct function; Leucine Zipper/Coil-Coil, helix-loop-helix, Zinc-Finger
most prominent protein in the world
rubisco
