Exam #1 Flashcards
1
Q
Characteristics of life
A
Composed of cells and unique molecular structure
2
Q
Are viruses alive?
A
Very small- 1/100th size of a of a bacterial cell, not a cell though. “Protein coat” takes from membrane host cell. Contains some genetic material but not enough to replicate by itself. Must infect other organisms and the use their cells and DNA to replicate.
NO THEY ARE NOT ALIVE BECAUSE THEY CAN’T REPRODUCE ON THEIR OWN!
3
Q
Linnaean taxonomy- categorizing life by genetic relatedness
A
Do Kings Play Chess On Fine Grain Sand
Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
4
Q
Three domains of life
A
Bacteria
Eukarya
Archaea
5
Q
Taxonomy of a black bear
A
Eukarya Anamalia Chordata Mammalia Carnivora Ursidae Arctos
6
Q
Human taxonomy
A
Eukarya Anamalia Chordata Mammalia Primates Hominidae Homo Sapiens
7
Q
Members of the hominidae
A
Mountain gorilla Lowland gorilla Chimpanzees Sumatran orangutan Bonobo Bornean orangutan
8
Q
What is biology?
A
Bio=life Logia= study of
Study of life
9
Q
Life is defined by?
A
The characteristics of life
10
Q
Life can be organized
A
In many ways
Ex:
Increasing complexity- biological levels of organization
Genetic relatedness- Linnaean taxonomy
11
Q
What is science ?
A
An objective method of understanding the natural world and Abbie of knowledge
12
Q
What is a theory ?
A
Collections of unifying insights (explanations) and supporting facts.
Theories have explanatory power
Facts support theories
Theory is a collection of principals, supported by evidence (facts) that explains some aspect or phenomenon of nature.
13
Q
What is the scientific method?
A
Based on observations and measurements or (experiments)
From observations come questions
From questions, formulate hypothesis
Test validity of hypothesis through further observation of experimentation.
14
Q
Hypothesis ?
A
Plausible explanation for a natural phenomenon
15
Q
Science is a process
A
Observation ➡️ hypothesis ➡️ prediction ➡️ experiment/further observation ➡️ results ➡️ conclusion
If the the results support the conclusion make a new prediction!
If the results don’t support the conclusion revise hypothesis!
16
Q
Louis pastuers
A
Test of the spontaneous generation of life!
People in the early 1800 believed life regularly arose from the coming together of chemicals.
Pastuers hypothesis - cases of spontaneous generation of life could be explain by microscopic airborne organisms.
17
Q
Scientific method
A
A statement is “scientific” if an objective method can be stated by which it can be disproven
Testable
Refutable
Repeatable
18
Q
Other ways of perceiving the world
A
Religious, aesthetic, ethical
Not scientific -often useful perspectives
Assertions are not disproven in the scientific sense
And are based ultimately on- faith, beliefs, cultural, or personal values
19
Q
Science does not address questions that are
A
Metaphysical (outside the physical world) or involve value judgements, such as issues of beauty or good and evil
20
Q
Pseudoscience ?
A
Pseudo = false
Often referred to as “junk science”
Presented as scientifically valid but in fact not scientific.
Untestable
Lack empirical support
Based on faulty reasoning
Poor methodology
21
Q
When does chemistry merge with life?
A
At cellular level
22
Q
What is matter?
A
Anything that takes up space and mass.
Liquids
Solids
Gases
23
Q
What is an element?
A
Pure form of matter containing only one kind of atom
24
Q
What is an atom?
A
Smallest particle of an element. It cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical process.
Earth is made up of <100 elements + some others
25
Subatomic particles ?
Protons
Neutrons
Elections
26
Protons
Positive charge, have mass, used to determine identity.
Different # of protons = different element
27
Neutrons
No charge, have mass, # can change
28
Electrons
Negative charge, mass is almost not there but still there, # can change
Orbit around nucleus shell "energy levels" of electrons
Inner shell may hold 2 electrons and it has to fill first
Outer shell holds up to 8
29
How big are atoms
Extremely small
30
How much of the mass of an atom does the nucleus contain?
99.9%
31
Elemental composition of organisms
```
Organism (sea lion)
⬇️
Organ (brain)
⬇️
Cell (neuron)
⬇️
Molecule (water)
⬇️
Atom (hydrogen)
```
32
Number of elements important to life?
25
33
Atomic number?
of protons
34
Atomic mass?
of protons and neutrons
35
Elements in humans
```
CHNOPS
Carbon 19.37%
Hydrogen 9.31%
Nitrogen 5.14%
Oxygen 62.81%
Phosphorus 0.63%
Sulfur 0.64%
```
36
How many protons in carbon?
6
37
Isotopes
Atoms of a particular element all have the same number of protons but differ in # of neutrons
38
Carbon 12, 13, and 14
12 is stable because it has 6 protons, 6 neutrons, and 6 elections
13 is still considered stable
14 is radioactive
39
Valence electrons?
Electrons in the outer most shell
40
7 P,N, and E =
Nitrogen
41
Chemical bonds
Bonds between atoms form chemical energy
Atoms form bonds because it moves them to a more stable state
Atoms have a propensity to attain complete shells thus becoming more stable
42
Molecular formulas
Water=
Oxygen gas=
Glucose=
Water = H2O
Oxygen gas= O2
Glucose = C6H12O6
43
Three types of bonds ?
Covalent
Ionic
Hydrogen
44
Covalent bond
Sharing of electrons between atoms
Ex: an atom of oxygen is almost always bound to some other atom(s), often O2 or H2O
45
Law of conservation of mass?
Matter can not be neither created more destroyed in chemical reactions.
E=mc^2
Energy is the same law. Cannot be created or destroyed
46
Molecule?
Group of atoms bonded together it is the smallest fundamental unit of chemical compounds.
Atoms may be the same element or different
47
Ionic bonds
Transfer of electrons between atoms.
In neutral atoms: electrons = protons
Lose or gain of electrons and an atom takes on an electrical charge either (- or +)
Ion= charged atom
Oppositely charges atoms attract
Ex: sodium chloride sodium gives an electron to make salt
48
Hydrogen bonds
Bonds between already covalently bonded hydrogen and an electronegative atom.
Polarity
In water, the oxygen atom is much more electronegative than the two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to it.
Gives water unique properties
Great solvent
49
Polar vs nonpolar covalent bonds
Nonpolar- where two atoms share a pair of electrons with each other.
Polar- is a type of chemical bond where a pair of electrons is unequally shared between two atoms.
50
Hydrogen bonding among water molecules
Already covalently bonded hydrogen with an electro negative atom.
51
Hydrophilic ?
Water loving!
| Compounds that readily interact with what like salt
52
Hydrophobic
Water hating!!
| Compounds that water forms around like oil
53
Is sodium chloride hydrophilic or hydrophobic
Well sodium chloride is salt which dissolves (ionizes) in water and it's not attracted to negative pole but attracted to oxygen therefore hydrophilic
54
Is water crucial to life?
Duh, life first evolved in water.
Life first evolved in water then colonized land.
To do so m, terrestrial organisms evolved to carry a water environment with them (inside them).
Vertebrates are 70%-80% water
Terrestrial plants are 90% water
55
Polarity
When there is an uneven distribution of charges on the two ends of a molecule. Allows water to interact with many substances. Main transport medium for organisms.
56
Covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds type of attraction and bond strength
Covalent- sharing of electrons strongest bond!!
Ionic- transfer of electrons still a strong bond but not the strongest.
Hydrogen bond- slight attraction between already covalently bonded hydrogen and an electronegative atom has a weak bond
57
Acids and bases
Water molecules can disassociate to produce ions
Acids yield H+ (hydrogen ions)
Bases accept H+
58
Example of acid ?
Hydrogen chloride (a covalently bonded, polar molecule) when it dissociates in water.
HCL ↔️ H+ + CL-
H+ released increases these ions in the solution.
59
Example of a base?
NaOH disassociate in water.
NaOH ↔️ Na+ + OH-
Hydroxide ions released react with hydrogen ions in the solution
60
pH?
Concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution.
pH levels
0 very acidic
7 neutral
14 basic
Based on log scale, 10 fold differences
(Moles/liter) scientific notation bs decimals
61
Buffers ?
Substances that keep pH from changing.
62
What maintains blood at a pH of 7.4?
Carbonic acid
63
Biological molecules ?
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic acids
64
Carbon ?
Backbone element of life, biological molecules have a carbon frame work.
Forms up to 4 covalent bonds
65
Carbohydrates ?
Sugars and starches it is an energy source
66
Simple carbohydrates ?
Simple sugars
Monosaccharides= 1 sugar (glucose or Fructose)
C6H12O6
Disaccharide = 2 sugars
Cactose
67
Complex carbohydrates ?
Polysaccharides = many sugars Made of repeating unites
(Figure is hexagons connected in a chain)
(Chapter 2 part 2) lecture page 2
68
Many macromolecules like complex carbohydrates are made up of repeating units generically called ?
Monomers
69
How do monomers form ?
Through dehydration synthesis broken a part through hydrolysis
70
Dehydration synthesis ?
Water being taken away
71
Hydrolysis
Broken apart with water added
72
Lipids?
Fats,oils,waxes
Can't dissolve (insoluble) in water(non polar)
2 to 1 ratio of H to O
Major uses : energy, energy storage, insulation (poor conductor of heat), protection, cellular structure to function.
```
H H H
| | |
H-C-C-C= C-C-C=C
| | | | |
H H H H H
```
73
Fatty acids ?
Carboxyl functional group
Saturated fatty acids are solid at room temperature "saturated with hydrogens"
O
=C (Look at pg.3 ch.2 pt.2)
/
O
|
H
Unsaturated fatty acids liquid at room temp
Room for hydrogens
Double bonds between carbons change physical shape of the molecule, thus it's behavior
74
Triglycerides ?
Three fatty acids bound to glycerol most common fat consumed in food.
75
Phospholipids?
Hydrophilic head
Hydrophobic tail
Phospholipid bilayer
76
Phospholipid bilayer ?
3D ball separating the inside of the cell from the outside
77
Proteins ?
Molecules that facilitate biological functions.
78
Proteins functions ?
Thousands of different type of functions
Enzyme- protein speeds chemical reaction
Transport- move other molecules
Contractile- muscle movements
Communication- cell to cell signals
Structural- physical or mechanical support
Protective- defend against invaders and cancer
79
What are polymers ?
Large molecules made up of smaller units (monomers) called peptides
80
Is protein a polymer?
Yes
81
Peptides?
Small proteins
82
Amino acids for protein
Building blocks of peptides and proteins
Know image on page 4!!
```
H
|
R O
H \ | /
N-C-C=O
H \ |
H
```
83
Amino acids
Number of types = 20
Essential = only obtained by humans from food
Non-essential= synthesized in body builds peptides, which then group to form bigger proteins polyp
84
Protein structure ?
Primary = specific sequence of amino acids
Secondary = bending and coiling of amino acid chain
Tertiary = 3D folding of chain that lock protein domain into place
Quaternary= number and arrangement of multiple folded protein subunits in a multi subunit complex.
85
Enzymes ?
Proteins that speed up chemical reactions!
Enzymes Are proteins but
Proteins are NOT enzymes
Very specific very few actions
Ex: Lactose hydrolysis adding water
Synthesis ➡️ Glucose
Lactase (an enzyme) breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose
86
DNA?
Deoxyribonucleic acid
| Long polymers made up of sequences of nucleotides
87
Nucleotides ?
Make RNA and DNA
| Small molecule important for (1) energy transfer in cells and (2) store and transmission of genetic information
88
Cellular energy transfer
Breaking and forming of bonds in ATP = release and storage of energy
89
ATP?
Adenosine triphosphate (3 phosphates)
"Energy currency of cells"
90
ADP
Adenosine diphosphate (2 phosphates)
91
Nucleotides used in genetic information
DNA made of nucleotides "bases"
Sequence of bases determines sequence of amino acids in proteins.
Adenine
(Guanine ) hydrogen bonds attracted
(Cytosine)
Thymine A=T and G=C
92
Cells?
Smallest unit of life
Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
93
Prokaryotes
DNA dispersed in cell, very small, always single called, few organelles inside the cell
94
Eukaryotes
DNA in nucleus, 100x larger, lots of organelles
95
Animal cells
"Typical" = small, filled with fluid, surrounded and linked to other cells, and immersed in watery fluid. Everything going in and out of the cell must pass through the cell membrane
96
Cell size (surface to volume ratio)
Small in size because of (surface to volume)
📦 1inch
Surface area = (H x W x Sides)
1inch height x 1inch width x 6sides =6
Volume = (H x W x L) (1x1x1) =1
Answer is (6:1)
🎁 6inchs
SA= (6x6x6)= 216
V=(6x6x6) = 216
Answer is (1:1)
97
Plasma membrane
Selectively permeable membrane encompassing cells main structural component
Include : phospholipid bilayer
Embedded protein
Surface protein
Cholesterol
Carbohydrates
98
Function of the plasma membrane ?
Regulation: chooses what goes into it (selectively permeable )
Cell recognition: might destroy what doesn't belong.
Cell to cell communication
Cell-cell adhesions "CAMS"
99
Movement through the plasma membrane
Simple diffusion
Osmosis
Facilitated diffusion
100
Simple diffusion
Movement of SOLUTE from high to low concentration
101
Osmosis
Movement of WATER from high to low concentration
102
Facilitated diffusion
Movement from high to low concentration using transfer proteins (carrier proteins)
103
Active transport
From LOW to high concentration, requires energy and protein pumps.
Ex: cells contain higher Ca+ than surrounding fluids
104
Protein pumps
Used energy to move stuff (ATP)
105
Bulk transport
Endocytosis (IN)
| Exocytosis (OUT)
106
Endocytosis
(IN) movement of large molecules on large amounts of small molecules
107
Exocytosis
(OUT) Movement of large molecules out of cells using membrane round "vesicles"
108
Selectively permeable
Chooses what enters
109
Organelles (small organs)
```
Plasma membrane
Nucleus
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi complex
Lysosomes
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
```
110
Nucleus ?
Contains most genetic info, bound by nuclear envelope (double membrane) produces RNA - which leaves the nucleus
111
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Network of channels connected to nuclear envelope and studded with ribosomes. Factories for protein synthesis. Amino acids chains are put together in ribosomes then processed into proteins with the ER, enclosed in vesicles for transport
112
Golgi complex
Receives proteins, conducts further processing, sorting and packaging. Proteins used within the cell possibly in lysosomes or exported from the cell
113
Lysosomes
Enzyme filled vesicles
114
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Lacks ribosomes, found further away from nucleus rougher. Detoxifies alcohol and other drugs, production of phospholipids
115
Mitochondria
The power house of the cell. Extracts energy from breakdown of energy rich molecules to use in cells. Contains its own genetic info and ribosome. Double membrane
116
Cytoskeleton
Microtubules
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
All of these structures are made mostly of protein inside cells
117
Microtubules
Microscopic tubular structure in numbers in the cytoplasm sometimes coming together to form more complex structures
Straight hollow rods made of the protein tubulin.
118
Microfilaments
Solid rods made of protein actin. These fibers are best known for their role in muscle contraction, where they slide past thicker filaments made of the protein myosin.
119
Intermediate filaments
Diverse group of rope-like fibers that maintain cell shape and anchor certain organelles in place.
120
How do cells get energy from food?
Digest- (breakdown) macromolecules from food to simpler components (glucose)
Absorb- simpler molecules into blood streams which carries them to cells. Within the cell, extract energy stored in chemical bonds of energy rich molecules
Extract energy- cellular respiration
121
Ultimately energy used by the vast majority of organisms for growth, survival, reproduction etc comes from?
The SUN
122
Formula for photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide + water ➡️ light energy (photosynthesis) ➡️ glucose + oxygen gas
6CO2+6H2O-photosynthesis-C6H12O6+6O2
123
Cellular respiration
Process by which cells derive energy from the breakdown of energy rich molecules like glucose
124
Formula for cellular respiration
Opposite of photosynthesis
Glucose+oxygen-energy (ATP)-carbon dioxide + water
6O2+C6H12O6-(ATP)-6CO2+6H2O
125
Energy?
Capacity to bring movement against an opposite force
126
Types of energy ?
Potential and kinetic
127
Potential energy?
Stored energy
128
Kinetic energy
Energy in motion
129
Model for ATP function
Look at cells(part 2)
130
Steps to cellular respiration
How cells capture energy from breakdown of energy rich molecules like glucose.
1. glycolysis
2. transition reaction
3. citric acid cycle
4. electron transport chain
131
What does it take in order to make ATP from a ADP and P-group?
Energy
132
Glycolysis
Occurred in cytoplasm and does NOT require oxygen.
Splitting requires TWO ATP
But makes FOUR ATP (which really only makes a gain of 2 because you gave two to being with)
Splits glucose into "pyruvates"
Plus NADH transfer electrons from one molecule to another
NAD+ picks up 2 electrons and makes NADH
133
Transition reaction
Pyruvates moved to mitochondria and prepared for CAC
```
Per pyruvate, produces Acetyl CoA
One carbon removed co2
NAD+
NADH. CoA
Acetyl CoA
```
Generates for each
1CO2
1NADH
CoA
134
Citric acid
Completes break down of glucose
Produces per turn (each Acetylene CoA): happened twice because you get 2 CoA
2CO2
1ATP
3NADH
1FADH2
```
1 molecule of glucose
4CO2
2ATP
6NADH
2FADH2
```
All carbon from original glucose molecules has broken up and disassembled
135
Electron transport chain
Electrons delivered by NADH and FADH2 are used extract electrons
Electrons then flow with (down) gradient through membrane proteins to make ATP
Low energy electrons eventually given to oxygen then water is made.
136
So cellular respiration all together ?
4 steps produce 36 molecules of ATP per each molecule of glucose
137
Is oxygen required for cellular respiration ?
YES!! Without oxygen there is nothing except the low energy electrons at the end of ECT.
Electron shuttles cannot release their electrons thus blocking
138
What is fermentation?
Aka "anaerobic respiration" breakdown of glucose without oxygen!
Glycolysis modified
1 Pyruvate or more derivative receive electrons which act as final electron recipients
Produce a net of 2 ATP instead of 36!
139
Lactic acid fermentation
Occurs in our muscles during strenuous exercises
Oxygen in muscle cells is used to quickly it cannot be replaced quick enough
Cells allow lactic acid fermentation to ensure continued production of ATP
140
What is life?
Characteristic distinguishing physical entities having biological processes such as signaling and self sustaining processes from those that do not.
141
Characteristics of living organisms?
```
Composed of cells
Different levels of organization
Use energy
Respond to their environment
Grow
Reproduce
Adapt to their environment
Homeostasis
```
142
Levels of biological organizations
```
Atoms
Cells
Tissue
Organ systems
Organisms
Population
Community
Ecosystem
Biosphere
```
143
What is tissue?
Made of similar types of cells that work together.
144
Organ system?
Made of different tissue types working together.
145
Organisms ?
Single living thing that has all of the characteristics of life. Ex:dog
146
Population?
All individuals of a particular type of organism that may interact in a particular place
147
Community ?
All different types of organisms that may interact in a particular place
148
Ecosystem ?
All different types of organisms, plus non-living (abiotic) components (things) necessary for their existence
149
Biosphere ?
The portions of atmosphere, ocean and land where life exists on earth.
150
Domains?
Most inclusive group!
Bacteria
Eukaryota
Archaea
151
Bacteria and Archaea
Genetically very different groups of organisms but both groups are microscopic single cell (unicellular) organisms and both have prokaryotic cell structure - lack a nucleus, lack membrane bound organelles (ribosomes,cell walls, nucleoid, plasma membrane
152
Domain: Eukarya
Unicellular and multicellular organisms.
Eukaryotic cells: complex (eukaryotic) cell structure - many bound organelles, DNA in nucleus
153
_______ cells evolved before ______ cells?
Prokaryotic cells evolved before eukaryotic cells
154
4 kingdoms in Eukarya?
Kingdom Protista
Kingdom Fungi
Kingdom Plantae
Kingdom Animalia
