Exam 1 Flashcards
What does the immune system do?
Protects the body against disease
What is immunology?
The study of all aspects of the immune system that protect the body from invading organisms
What are commensal organisms?
Resident microorganisms that normally colonize healthy humans
Do not normally cause disease
What is microbiota/microflora?
The microbial community that inhabits a particular site
How are some commensal organisms beneficial to humans?
Metabolic functions
Protective functions
Immune system development
What are 4 specific functions of commensal microorganisms?
Synthesize essential metabolites
Break down plant fibers in food
Prevent pathogens from benefiting from the resources of the human gut
Interact with epithelium to trigger development of secondary lymphoid tissue
What can some commensals be labeled as?
Opportunistic pathogens
What is a pathogen?
Any organism with the potential to cause disease
When can opportunistic pathogens cause disease?
When an individual is immunocompromised or the body’s defenses are compromised or the microbe grows beyond its typical load or gains access to a site that it doesn’t normally colonize
What happens when antibiotic treatments disrupt the natural ecology of the colon? (4)
The colon is colonized by large numbers of commensal bacteria
Antibiotics kill many of these commensal bacteria
Pathogenic bacteria produce toxins that cause mucosal injury
Red and white blood cells leak into gut between injured epithelial cells
What are the 4 groups of pathogens?
Bacteria
Viruses
Fungi
Parasites
What is gram positive bacteria?
Cell wall contains lipoteichoic acid, teichoic acid, and peptidoglycan
What is gram negative bacteria?
Outer membrane contains lipopolysaccharide
What can some bacteria have?
Capsule
Is bacteria intracellular or extracellular?
Can be both
What is the genetic material in viruses surrounded by?
Outer capsid proteins with or without a lipoprotein bilayer envelope
How do viruses replicate?
Intracellularly, but they have an extracellular phase
Where can fungi be found?
Ubiquitous in the environment
How many fungi can cause severe infection? In whom?
A limited number
In the immunocompromised
What type of organisms are fungi?
Eukaryotic
What does the cell wall of fungi contain?
β-glucans, chitin, and mannan’s added to fungal proteins
What kind of infections does fungi cause?
Extracellular and intracellular
What type of organisms are protozoan parasites?
Single-celled eukaryotes
What is an example of protozoan parasites?
Plasmodium, which causes malaria
What stage(s) do protozoan parasites have?
Intracellular and extracellular
What kind of organisms are helminths (worms)?
Large, multicellular eukaryotes
What stage(s) do helminths have?
Extracellular
Where can the site of infection be for extracellular pathogens? (4)
Interstitial spaces, blood, lymph, and epithelial surfaces
What organisms have a site of infection that is interstitial spaces, blood, or lymph? (5)
Viruses Bacteria Protozoa Fungi Worms
What kind of protective immunity is there in the interstitial spaces, blood, or lymph?
Complement
Phagocytosis
Antibodies
What kind of protective immunity is there in the epithelial surfaces?
Antimicrobial peptides
Antibodies, especially IgA
Where can the site of infection be for intracellular pathogens?
Cytoplasmic
Veisular
What organism has a site of infection that is cytoplasmic?
Viruses
What kind of protective immunity is there in the cytoplasm?
NK cells
Cytotoxic T cells
What kind of protective immunity is there in the vesicles?
T-celland NK-cell dependent macrophage activation
What is an antigen?
A structure recognized by the immune system
What makes up RNA viruses?
RNA
What makes up DNA viruses?
DNA
What makes up gram positive bacteria?
Lipoproteins
Lipoteichoic acid
DNA
What makes up gram negative bacteria?
Lipopolysaccharide
DNA
Flagellin
What makes up fungi?
Zymosan β-Glycan
DNA
What makes up protists?
DNA
GPI anchors
What are examples of conserved, non-specific antigens recognized by the innate immune system?
Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) RNA viruses DNA viruses Gram positive bacteria Gram negative bacteria Fungi Protists
What are 4 differences between the innate and adaptive immune responses?
Speed
Specificity
Strength of response
Memory response
What is the speed of an innate response like?
Fast acting, immediate, within hours
What is the speed of an adaptive response like?
Takes time to develop, at least 5 days for an initial response
What is the specificity of an innate response like?
Non-specific
Detects evolutionary conserved structures (PAMPs)
Fixed number of receptor specificities
What is the specificity of an adaptive response like?
Highly specific for a particular microbe
Infinite number receptor specificities
What is the strength of an innate response like?
Constant
What is the strength of an adaptive response like?
Gets stronger during the course of infection
What is the memory of an innate response like?
No memory response
What is the memory of an adaptive response like?
Memory response are faster, stronger, and more effective than primary responses
What does the innate immune system response do?
Effectively clears the majority of early infections before symptoms develop
What happens if innate immunity is lacking?
Uncontrolled infection occurs because the adaptive immune response cannot be deployed without the preceding innate response
What happens if the innate response cannot clear the infection?
It holds it i check until the stronger adaptive immune response develops
What is the innate response also necessary for?
Activation of the adaptive response
What happens if the adaptive immune response is lacking?
The infection is initially contained by the innate system but cannot be cleared from the body
What is hematopoiesis?
Development of blood cells
What do all blood cells arise from?
The hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) in the bone marrow
What do HSCs differentiate to?
Myeloid and lymphoid precursors
What blood cells are of lymphoid lineage? (3)
T cells — effector T cell
B cells — plasma cell
Natural killer cells
What blood cells are of myeloid precursors? (10)
Monocyte Macrophage Dendritic cell Neutrophil Eosinophil Basophil Mast cell Megakaryocyte Platelets Erythrocyte
What do RBCs (erythrocytes) do?
Carry oxygen around the body
What do platelets do?
Clot blood after damage to blood vessels
What is another type of blood cell? What are the also called?
White blood cells (cells of the immune system)
Leukocytes
When does the bone marrow start being the location of hematopoiesis?
Birth
What are the locations of hematopoiesis before birth?
Yolk sac
Fetal liver and spleen
What does a megakaryocyte do?
Platelet formation and wound repair
What is the mast cell important in?
Defense against parasites
What is the mast cell responsible for?
Type I allergic reactions
Where does the mast cell reside?
Tissues
What is the eosinophil involved in?
Defense against parasites
What do eosinophils contribute to?
Type I allergic reactions
What are basophils?
Rare immune cells
What is the basophil involved in?
Defense against parasites
What do basophils contribute to?
Type I allergic reactions
What are neutrophils specialized for?
The phagocytosis and killing of microbes
What is the most abundant leukocyte in the blood?
Neutrophils
What are monocytes?
Blood precursors
What do monocytes differentiate to?
Macrophages upon leaving blood and entering tissues
What do macrophages circulate in?
Tissues and detect invading microbes
What do macrophages do?
Phagocytosis of microbes and general debris
What do macrophages orchestrate?
An inflammatory immune response
What is a conventional dendritic cell?
A professional antigen presenting cell
What do conventional dendritic cells do?
Picks up antigens in tissues and moves to secondary lymphoid tissues to activate T cells and initiate adaptive immune responses
What do plasmacytoid dendritic cells do?
Secrete large amounts of type I interferons
What do type I interferons do?
Activate antiviral responses
What do natural killer cells do?
Kill host cells infected with intracellular pathogen as well as some tumor cells
What are small lymphocytes?
Cells of the adaptive immune response
What do B cells differentiate to?
Plasma cells that secrete antibodies
What are T cells involved in?
Almost all aspects of adaptive immunity
What are plasma cells?
Terminally differentiated B cells that secrete antibody
What is found in the highest numbers in tissue rather than blood? (3)
Macrophages
Dendritic cells
Mast cells
What is lymph?
Blood plasma that forms the extracellular fluid
What are lymphatics?
Vessels that drain lymph and return it to circulation
What are the primary/central lymphoid tissues?
Bone marrow and thymus
What are primary/central lymphoid tissues the site of?
B cell and T cell development
What are the secondary/peripheral lymphoid tissues? (6)
Lymph nodes Spleen Peyer's patches Tonsils Adenoids Appendix
What is special about the spleen?
It has no direct connections with the lymphatics
What are the secondary/peripheral lymphoid tissues the site of?
B cell and T cell activation
If B cells and T cells are not activated, what happens?
They return to the blood via the efferent lymphatics and continue to recirculate
What are 2 broad categories of innate defenses?
Surface barriers
Internal defences
What are examples of surface barriers?
Skin
Mucous membranes
What are examples of internal defenses? (5)
Phagocytes Fever NK cells Antimicrobial proteins Inflammation
What are 2 broad categories of adaptive defenses?
Humoral immunity
Cellular immunity
What is an example of humoral immunity?
B cells
What is an example of cellular immunity?
T cells
What are the 4 stages of an immune response?
Adherence to epithelium
Local infection penetration of epithelium
Local infection of tissues
Adaptive immunity
During adherence to epithelium, what protection is used against infection? (3)
Epithelial surfaces
Antimicrobial molecules
Commensal microbes
During local infection penetration of epithelium, what protection is used against defense? (2)
Macrophages detect pathogen and initiate an immune response
Activation of complement
During local infection of tissues, what protection is used against defense? (3)
Innate immune response:
Inflammation
Recruitment of neutrophils, NK cells
Fever
During adaptive immunity, what protection is used against defense? (1)
Adaptive immune response:
Activation of B and T cells
What are microbes detected by?
Macrophages
Dendritic cells
What do dendritic cells do?
Traffic to secondary lymphoid tissues
What is the first line of defense?
Skin and mucosal barriers
What does the skin cover?
The outside of the body
What do mucosal surfaces line?
The bodies internal tubes
What is special about the mucosal surfaces?
More delicate than skin and must be permeable due to their function
Where do most pathogens enter the body?
Through mucosal surfaces
What are the 4 mechanisms of defense at epithelial surfaces?
Physical
Mechanical
Chemical
Microbiological
What is a mechanical mechanism of defense for the skin, gut, lungs, and eyes/nose/oral cavity?
Epithelial cells joined by tight junctions
What is a mechanical mechanism of defense for the skin and gut?
Longitudinal flow of air or fluid
What is a mechanical mechanism of defense for the lungs?
Movement of mucus by cilia
What are mechanical mechanisms of defense for the eyes/nose/oral cavity?
Tears
Nasal cilia
What are chemical mechanisms of defense for the skin?
Fatty acids
Antimicrobial peptides
What are chemical mechanisms of defense for the gut?
Low pH
Antimicrobial enzymes
Antimicrobial peptides
What are chemical mechanisms of defense for the lungs?
Movement of mucus by cilia
Pulmonary surfactant
Antimicrobial peptides
What are chemical mechanisms of defense for the eyes/nose/oral cavity?
Antimicrobial enzymes in tears and saliva
Antimicrobial peptides
What is a microbiological mechanism of defense for the skin, gut, lungs, and eyes/nose/oral cavity?
Normal microbiota
What do all epithelial surfaces produce?
Chemical antimicrobial molecules
What do commensal microbiota do?
Inhibit colonization by pathogens because pathogens have to compete for nutrients and attachment sites
What are 2 examples of antimicrobial proteins?
Defensins
Lysozyme
What are defensins?
Amphipathic antimicrobial peptides
What are defensins secreted by?
Epithelial calls and phagocytic cells
Are defensins cationic or anionic?
Cationic
What do defensins do?
Disrupt pathogen membranes by forming a pore
What are lysozymes secreted in?
Tears and saliva
What are lysozymes secreted by?
Phagocytes
What do lysozyme do?
Breaks down peptidoglycan in bacterial cell walls
What have commensal microbes developed?
Mechanisms of resistance to host antimicrobial peptides
What do pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs) do?
Recognize PAMPs
What are PAMPs?
Pathogen associated molecular patterns
Antigens that are highly conserved in groups of pathogens
What are examples of highly conserved molecules recognized by PRRs?
Bacterial LPS and LTA
Fungal β-glucans
Bacterial and viral DNA
What are DAMPs?
Danger associated molecular patterns
Antigens produced by damaged cells that signal stress
What do PRRs promote?
Phagocytosis
Signaling
What are tissue macrophages?
The first leukocyte to detect pathogens in the tissues
What does the binding of PAMPs to PRRs do?
Promote phagocytosis
Induce production of inflammation cytokines to initiate an immune response against bacterial and fungal pathogens
What is phagocytosis?
Endocytosis of pathogen into phagosome/endosome vesicle
When the phagosome fuses with a lysosome, what forms?
Phagolysosome
What happens to the pathogen in phagocytosis?
Pathogen is destroyed by degradative enzymes and antimicrobial substances
What are the 4 steps to phagocytosis?
- Macrophage receptors recognize components of microbial surfaces
- Microorganisms are bound by phagocytic receptors on the macrophage surface
- Microorganisms are internalized by receptor-mediated endocytosis
- Fusion of endosome with a lysosome forms
What is opsonization?
The coating a particle by any molecule that promotes phagocytosis of the coated particle
What do phagocytic cells have for the molecule that coats the particle in opsonization?
Phagocytic receptors
What do some antibodies and complement act as?
Opsonins
What are cytokines?
Proteins released by cells that affect the behavior of other cells
What is a group of cytokines?
Interleukins
What are interferons?
Generally antiviral cytokines
What are chemokines?
Cytokines that induce chemotaxis
What do pro-inflammatory cytokines do? What are some examples? (5)
Stimulate the immune system/inflammation
INF-γ, TNF-α, IL-2, IL-6, IL-12
What do anti-inflammatory cytokines do? What are some examples? (4)
Suppress the immune system/inflammation
IL-4, IL-5, IL-10, TGF-β
What are examples of signaling receptors? (4)
Toll-like receptors
NOD-like receptors
RIG-I-like receptors
DNA sensors
Where are toll-like receptors located?
On the cell surface and in endosomes
Where are NOD-like receptors located?
Cytoplasm
Where are RID-I-like receptors located?
Cytoplasm
Where are DNA sensors located?
Cytoplasm
What does the activation of toll-like receptors result in?
Results in the production of cytokines
What are TLRs present on?
Various different leukocytes and epithelial cells
What are NOD-like receptors?
Sensors of intracellular bacteria and viruses
What do RIG-I-like receptors do?
Detect viral DNA
What do DNA sensors do?
Detect bacterial and viral DNA
What does the binding of PAMPs to signaling receptors result in?
Expression of inflammatory cytokines
What does the combination of cytokines produced depend on?
The PRRs that were activated
What are 2 things that cytokines do?
Activate other mechanisms of innate immunity
Shape the nature of the adaptive immune response
When there is an infection, how are neutrophils released?
From the bone marrow in greater numbers
Are neutrophils normally in tissues? When are they there?
No
During infection
What do neutrophils function as?
Phagocytes
What do neutrophils contain?
Performed granules with various antimicrobial substances
What does the phagosome fuse with prior to the lysosome?
Granules
What do neutrophils form upon death?
Pus
What kind of bacteria can neutrophils bind with?
Pyogenic bacteria
What is pyogenic bacteria?
Pus forming bacteria
What do neutrophils do upon death? (2)
Undergo apoptosis, then removed by macrophages
Die by netosis
What does netosis produce?
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs)
What are NETs composed of?
A network of chromatin, bacterial peptides, and proteases
What do NETs do?
Trap and kill microbes
What do inflammatory cytokines act on?
The hypothalamus
What do inflammatory cytokines?
Increase metabolism of fat and muscle to allow increased body temperature
What do inflammatory cytokines promote?
Decreased pathogen replication
What class of proteins does serum amyloid protein belong to?
Pentraxins
What do serum amyloid proteins do?
Enhance opsonization
What do acute phase proteins do?
Change concentration by more than 25% during infection
What does the detection of viral PAMPs result in?
Activation of type I interferons
What can type I interferons be produced by?
Almost all virally infected cells
What do antiviral innate immune responses generated by interferons activate?
Expression of genes that inhibit viral replication in infected cells
Upregulate certain cell surface molecules to indicate infection
Activate natural killer cells
What are natural killer cells activated by?
Type I interferons and macrophage cytokines
What do NK cells recognize?
Changes in the expression of cell surface molecules in cells that are infected with a virus
What is the killing function of NK cells regulated by?
A balance of signals from inhibitory and activating receptors
Why do inhibitory signals dominate no lysis cells?
So the cell is not destroyed
Why do activating signals dominate lysis cells?
So the cell is destroyed
What do NK cells form a synapse with?
Infected cells
What do NK cells release through the direct synapse? What does it do?
Contents of granules
Kills one cell at a time
How many people does inherited neutropenia (phagocyte defect) affect?
About 1 in 200,000
What does inherited neutropenia lead to?
Neutrophil deficiency
What does inherited neutropenia result in?
Susceptibility to infections with extracellular bacteria
What are treatments for inherited neutropenia? (2)
Regular infusions of antibody and a cytokine that stimulates neutrophil production
Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation
How many people does leukocyte adhesion deficiency (phagocyte defect) affect?
About 1 in 1,000,000
What is leukocyte adhesion deficiency?
Deficiency in adhesion molecules necessary for phagocytes to leave the blood and enter tissues
What does leukocyte adhesion deficiency result in?
Widespread infection with extracellular bacteria
What is a treatment for leukocyte adhesion deficiency?
Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation
How many people does chronic granulomatous disease (phagocyte defect) affect?
About 1 in 250,000
What does chronic granulomatous disease result in?
Bacterial and fungal infections
Early death due to chronic lung infections
What is a treatment for chronic granulomatous disease?
Antibiotics to prevent and treat infections
Do NK cell defects occur?
They are very rare
What do NK cell defects increase the susceptibility to? (2)
Herpesvirus
Human papillomaviruses
What are complement proteins made by?
Liver
Where do complement proteins circulate?
Plasma
Lymph
Extracellular fluid
What kind of enzyme are complement proteins?
Proteases
What are complement proteins made as?
Zymogens
What are zymogens?
An inactive form of the protease
How are complement proteins named?
C1, C2, C3, etc.
What are 3 functions of the complement system?
C3b fixations tags a pathogen for opsonization
Membrane attack complex forms a pore in the pathogen membrane
Production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines C3a and C5a
What are the 3 pathways of the complement system?
Alternative pathway
Lectin pathway
Classical pathway
What happens in the alternative pathway?
Pathogen surface creates local environment conducive to complement activation
What happens in the lectin pathway?
Mannose-binding lectin binds to pathogen surface
What happens in the classical pathway?
C-reactive protein or antibody binds to specific antigen on pathogen surface
What is the next step in the complement system after one of the 3 complement pathways?
Cleavage of C3 to C3a and C3b
After the cleavage of C3, what happens in the complement system? (3)
Recruitment of inflammatory cells
Opsonization of pathogens, facilitating uptake and killing by phagocytes
Perforation of pathogen cell membranes
What happens at the end of the complement system?
Death of pathogen
How is C3 produced?
Constitutively
What do cytokines do to C3?
Upregulate it
After C3 is cleaved, what happens to C3b?
Becomes attached to the pathogen surface
What does C3b function as?
Opsonin
What does the cleavage of C3 of?
Exposes a thioester bond
What is the thioester bond susceptible to?
Nucleophilic attack
What is the thioester bond attacked by?
H2O
Pathogen surface
What does H2O result in during C3b fixation?
Results in inactive C3b (iC3b)
What does the pathogen surface result in during C3b fixation?
Complement fixation
What is the first pathway activated?
Alterative pathway
What is iC3b?
Soluble convertase
What is C3a?
Inflammatory cytokine
What does factor B also bind?
Fixed C3b
After factor B binds fixed C3b, what does factor D do?
Celaves factor B to form Ba and C3bBb
What is C3bBb? What does it do?
Alternative C3 convertase
Amplifies complement fixation
What is the lectin pathway initiated by?
Mannose binding lectin
What are lectins?
Carbohydrate binding proteins
What does mannose binding lectin function as?
An opsonin
What does mannose binding lectin activate?
The complement system
What is the classical pathway initiated by?
C-reactive protein
What does C-reactive protein bind to?
Phosphocholine
What does C-reactive protein function as?
An opsonin
What does C-reactive protein activate?
The complement system via C1
What do activated MASP-2 or C1s do?
Cleave C4 to C4a and C4b
Cleave C2 to C2a and C2b
What is C4a?
A weak inflammatory mediator
What is the order of inflammatory mediators from strongest to weakest?
C5a, C3a, C4a
What does C4b do?
Binds to C2a to form the classical C3 convertase to cleave C3 to C3a and C3b
What do phagocytes have?
Complement receptor 1
What do phagocytes do on the pathogen surface?
Bind to C3b, which facilitates phagocytosis
What do complement control proteins do?
Control the site and amount of complement deposition
What disrupts the alternative C3 convertase on human cell surfaces? What does that do?
DAF, MCP, factor H, and CR1
Inhibit complement fixation
What happens in the membrane attack complex?
C3b binds to the alternative C3 convertase to form C5 convertase which cleave C5 into C5a and C5b
What does C5b initiate?
Formation of the membrane attack complex, which forms a pore in microbial cell membranes
What does the membrane attack complex do?
Disrupts microbial cell membranes
What do C3a and C5a induce?
An inflammatory response
What is the most common symptom for defective complement proteins?
Increased susceptibility to Neisseria meningitidis
What is a less common symptom for defective complement proteins?
Susceptibility to Streptococcus pneumonia and Haemophilius influenzae
What are defective complement proteins strongly associated with?
Increased risk of developing systemic lupus erythematosus
Where is adaptive immunity initiated?
Secondary lymphoid tissues
How are antigens transported in adaptive immunity?
From the site of infection to secondary lymph tissues
What is activated in secondary lymphoid tissues?
B cells and T cells
What do lymphoid follicles contain?
B cells
What do primary lymphoid follicles contain?
Naive (unactivated) B cells
What do secondary lymphoid follicles contain?
A germinal center
What does the germinal center contain?
Activated B cells undergoing proliferation
What do T cell areas contain?
T cells
What do sinuses contain?
Lymph and macrophages that filter lymph
What is the spleen composed of?
Red pulp
White pulp
What does red pulp do?
Removes finished red blood cells
What is white pulp?
Secondary lymphoid tissue
What is the structure of white pulp similar to?
Lymph nodes with B cell and T cell areas
What does the marginal zone of white pulp do?
Screen the blood for antigens
What does the spleen receive?
Bloodborne pathogens
What do antibodies bind to?
Foreign antigens
What are antibodies?
Secreted form of the B cell receptor
What are 4 functions of antibodies?
Neutralization
Opsonization
Activation of the classical complement pathway
Antibody dependent cell mediated toxicity
What does neutralization do?
Prevents pathogen attachment to host cell surfaces
What do opsonization do?
Enhances phagocytosis
What does antibody dependent cell mediated toxicity do?
Tags infected cells for destruction by NK cells
What does immunoglobulin refer to?
B cell receptor and secreted antibody
What is the structure of immunoglobulins?
2 light chains, 2 heavy chains, variable region, and constant region
What do the variable regions of immunoglobulins contain?
The antigen binding site
What do the constant regions of immunoglobulins determine?
Antibody function
What are the functional classes of constant regions called? How many?
Antibody isotypes
5
What is the antibody stem?
Heavy chain constant region
What is the antibody stem often referred to as?
The Fc region
What does the antibody stem bind to?
Fc receptors on immune cells
Describe the chain composition of immunoglobulin domains. (3)
All change have 1 variable domain
Light chains have 1 constant domain
Heavy chains have 3-4 constant domains
What are the 5 antibody isotypes?
γ (G) μ (M) δ (D) α (A) ε (E)
How many different light chains are there? What are they called?
2
Kappa and lambda
In humans, how many antibodies have a kappa light chain?
About 2/3
Do the different antibody isotypes have the same or different functions?
Different
What are the different functions of immunoglobulins? (6)
Neutralization Opsonization Sensitization for killing by NK cells Sensitization of mast cells Sensitization of basophils Activation of complement system
What is each antigen binding site formed from?
6 hypervariable regions
Where are the 6 hyper variable regions?
3 each on light and heavy chains
What are antigen binding sites surrounded by?
Less variable framework designs
What is an antigen?
A molecule recognized by the immune system
What does the molecule (antigen) contain?
A structure recognized by a receptor
What is an epitope?
Specific part of an antigen to which an antibody binds
What do immunoglobulins bind to?
Surface epitopes
What can epitopes of protein antigens can be divided into? (2)
Linear epitope
Discontinuous epitope
What is a linear epitope?
Continuous segment of a polypeptide chain
What is a discontinuous epitope?
Amino acids brought together in a folded structure
What are polyclonal antibodies?
Collection of different antibodies that recognize the same structure but different epitopes
What are polyclonal antibodies produced from?
Different B cell lineages
When are polyclonal antibodies produced?
During an immune response
How many epitopes do monoclonal antibodies recognize?
1
What are monoclonal antibodies produced from?
One B-cell lineage
How is antivenom for humans developed? (4)
- Venom extracted
- Animal injected
- Animal produces polyclonal antibodies against venom
- Antivenom give to humans
Why does the hybridoma cell provide an infinite supply of the antibody?
It is immortal
What are the 4 types of therapeutic monoclonal antibody?
Mouse
Chimeric
Humanized
Human
What do chimeric antibodies contain?
Mouse V regions and human C regions
What are humanized antibodies?
When mouse HVR sequences replace human HVR sequences
What are human antibodies?
When mouse immunoglobulin genes are replaced with human immunoglobulin genes
How are human antibodies produced from mice?
Genes encoding human B-cell receptor/antibody genes replace the corresponding mouse genes and human antibodies will be produced by the genetically modified mice
What is the treatment of chimeric monoclonal antibody against B cells, Rituximab, used to treat?
Lymphomas
Leukemia
What is the treatment of humanized monoclonal antibody against IgE, Omalizumab, used to treat?
Allergies unresponsive to corticosteroids
What is the treatment of monoclonal antibody against TNF-α, Adalimamab, used for?
Anti-inflammatory drug
What does the 1st antibody do when using monoclonal antibodies?
Binds to the target protein
What does the 2nd antibody do when using monoclonal antibodies?
Binds to the first antibody
What does the 2nd antibody when using monoclonal antibodies contain?
An enzyme that catalyzes a color-producing reaction
Fluorescent molecule
What diagnostic test can be used with monoclonal antibodies?
Pregnancy test
