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Principle of Reasoning & Argument > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

normative angle

A

how we should reason

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2
Q

descriptive angle

A

how we do reason

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3
Q

what is reasoning?

A

to make an inference (argument)

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4
Q

what is an argument?

A

a belief that one claim is true because some other claim is evidence for truth

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5
Q

what are the parts of an argument?

A

premise(s) and conclusion

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6
Q

what is a premise?

A

reason or evidence for believing a conclusion

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7
Q

conclusion

A

claim for which evidence is given, which is backed up or justified

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8
Q

what is internal reason for caring about arguments?

A

helps rationalize the arguments you make in your own thinking

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9
Q

what is an external reason for caring about arguments?

A

arguments can be used for persuasion

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10
Q

indicator words

A

words that typically indicate the presence of either a premise or conclusion, and therefore an argument

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11
Q

claim

A

statement that reports a fact about the world

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12
Q

conditional

A

a CLAIM that reports a fact in which one event/state depends on another (if an only if)

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13
Q

factual correctness

A

achieved if all premises of an argument are true

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14
Q

logical strength

A

achieved if claims cumulatively give sufficient evidence for the conclusion

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15
Q

cogent

A

an argument that is both factually correct and logically strong

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16
Q

argument

A

one or more claims (premises) used to back up a final (conclusion)

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17
Q

premise

A

a claim that supports a specific conclusion

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18
Q

conclusion

A

a claim that is supported by one or more premises

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19
Q

opinion

A

a claim that is a belief

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20
Q

can you persuade without making an argument?

A

yes

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21
Q

what is the easiest way to find an argument?

A

indicator words

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22
Q

phrase to remember conditionals

A

if and only if

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23
Q

what is the difference between arguments and persuasion?

A

not all arguments are persuasion; not all persuasion is an argument

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24
Q

analyze

A

to break something up into pieces to better understand it

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25
Q

how do you analyze an argument

A

identify premise(s) and conclusion and determine how they are related (uncovering structure)

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26
Q

how do you know when a sentence is making more than one claim?

A

the claims can be proved true or false independent of one another

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27
Q

standardization

A

number list of claims and conclusions with the highest number being assigned to the final conclusion

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28
Q

diagramming

A

pictoral representation of how premises related to their conclusions independent of the subject matter

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29
Q

->

A

inference

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30
Q

+

A

conjunction (multiple premises supporting one conclusion)

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31
Q

simple argument

A

contains only one inference

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32
Q

complex argument

A

contains at least two inferences; at least one claim will be both an inference and a conclusion

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33
Q

direct reason

A

premise that directly supports conclusion

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34
Q

indirect reason

A

premise that indirectly supports conclusion

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35
Q

is analysis a descriptive or normative process?

A

descriptive (does not involve evaluating argument’s cogency

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36
Q

why do we try to analyze arguments?

A

to determine the structure of an author’s intended argument

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37
Q

logical/evidential use of “because”

A

gives a reason to believe a conclusion is true

38
Q

causal/explanatory use of “because”

A

introduces claim that explains something that is already meant to be taken as true

39
Q

how to determine between causal and logical use of because

A

is the claim that comes after the ‘because’ already taken to be true?

40
Q

interrogating the text

A

method for finding premises and conclusions without indicator words

41
Q

1st question for interrogating text

A

what is the point of the piece?

42
Q

2ndary questions for interrogating text

A

am i being persuaded?

am i being given reasons to believe that something is true?

43
Q

’ ‘

A

used to mention a word (versus use it)

44
Q

The Rationality Assumption

A

people intend to offer good arguments and ar generally capable of doing so; being charitable to the author

45
Q

charitable

A

assuming authors intent to use good arguments on the principle of the Rationality Assumption

46
Q

missing premise

A

an implicit or unstated premise that positively connects a given premise to a given conclusion

47
Q

rhetorical questions

A

questions that state a claim

48
Q

Rule for Missing Premises

A

include only the MPs in a standardization that are required to connect the author’s stated premise(s) with the conclusion (in accordance with the Rationality Assumption)

49
Q

is it possible to have unconscious beliefs?

A

yes

50
Q

argumentative gap

A

condition of an argument if not all premises lead directly to a conclusion

51
Q

conditional method for MPs

A

if [argument’s stated premise], then it is true or likely true that [arguments stated conclusion]

52
Q

what is the best way for attributing charitable MPs to an argument with an argumentative gap?

A

the conditional method

53
Q

how do you know if an argumentative has an argumentative gap

A

ask: could a rational person objective in principle to a given premise?

54
Q

how many MPs can there be in an argument?

A

up to one for each inference

55
Q

what must you do before deciding if a MP is necessary?

A

find the MP!

56
Q

why would you use the conditional method?

A

bridges the argumentative gap without assuming the author is trying to say anything they may not be trying to say

57
Q

peripheral information

A

claims in an argument that are neither a premise or a conclusion

58
Q

report

A

type of peripheral information that is a description of an argument that is being made by someone who is not the author

59
Q

conjoined premises

A

premises that are meant to be taken together to support a conclusion

60
Q

independent premises

A

premises that are meant to be taken as independent of one another in support of the conclusion

61
Q

how do you know if two premises are independent?

A

only if the author explicitly states that they are meant to be taken as separate

62
Q

why do we usually assume premises are conjoined?

A

it is more charitable to the author if we assume the premises are meant to be taken together

63
Q

objections

A

type of peripheral information in which an author interrupts their own argument to acknowledge the opposite perspective to their argument

64
Q

types of peripheral information

A

objections, reports of other arguments

65
Q

do you standardize objections to an argument?

A

no

66
Q

what do you do first - analysis or evaluation?

A

analysis

67
Q

are arguments standardized using conditional method inherently factually correct or logically strong?

A

logically strong

68
Q

surface-level analysis

A

represents an argument as stated

69
Q

deep analysis

A

includes necessary missing premise(s) and conclusion

70
Q

if a surface-level argument is uncogent, does the cogency change when it becomes a deep-level analysis

A

no (but can factual correctness or logical strength)

71
Q

how do you know if a MP is factually correct

A

MP is factually correct if connection between given premise and conclusion is strong (if surface-level analysis is logically strong)

72
Q

arguments from analogy

A

author draws a conclusion about something on the basis of its similarity to another thing

73
Q

how do you evaluate an argument from analogy

A

need to figure whether the noted similarities are relevant to the inferred similarity

74
Q

argument from inductive generalization

A

argument based on “if, then” logic

75
Q

how do you evaluate an argument from inductive generalization?

A

need to decide if the viewpoint of the example in the argument is representative of the larger whole it is meant to portray

76
Q

bridge premise

A

another name for a missing premise that connects given premise to given conclusion

77
Q

whose perspective should we consider when determining an argument’s cogency?

A

our own perspective

78
Q

belief

A

a personal attitude towards factual correctness

79
Q

antecedent

A

given premise that is factored into a conditional claim

80
Q

consequent

A

given conclusion that is factored into a conditional claim

81
Q

types of conditionals

A

statistical or universal

82
Q

statistical conditional

A

a conditional that is likely true - the antecedent likely makes the consequent true

83
Q

universal conditional

A

a conditional that is indisputably true - the antecedent ensures the consequent

84
Q

straw man argument

A

an argument that draws a negative conclusion about a claim/viewpoint/organization on the basis of a misrepresentation

85
Q

is a universal conditional true or false in the case that the antecedent is true and the consequent is false

A

false

86
Q

ambiguous conditional

A

another name for the conditionals created using the conditional method for missing premises

87
Q

are ambiguous conditionals considered universal or statistical?

A

statistical

88
Q

contextual straw man argument

A

argument that misrepresents a claim/viewpoint/organization by taking the opposition’s own words and quoting them out of context

89
Q

why are contextual straw man arguments more sinister?

A

they are intentionally misleading and take advantage of our innate trust of others’ words

90
Q

how do you identify straw man arguments?

A

look up the claim/viewpoint/organization being criticized
evaluate the plausability of the way the claim/viewpoint/organization is represented
identify who the author is an if there are any likely biases (the less neutral, the more suspicious we should be)

91
Q

are straw man arguments intentional?

A

most are not, though some are

Principle of Reasoning & Argument (1 decks)

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