Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
Physical Geography
A
geography which uses a spatial perspective to study the physical elements and processes that make up the earths environment
2
Q
Hazards assessment
A
blends physical and human geography
3
Q
tools that geographers use
A
- maps
- geographical information systems (GIS)
- global positioning systems (GPS)
- Remote sensing
- statistical analysis
- visualization
4
Q
Map projection
A
how to display the Earths surface
a two dimensional representation of a three dimensional geoid
5
Q
flat maps distort several properties of a geoid including
A
- direction
- area
- shape
- proximity
- distance
6
Q
GPS
A
- Global positioning system
- there are 24 orbiting satellites to triangulate your position on earth
- accuracy can be around 5 meters
- precision agriculture (one application)
7
Q
GIS
A
- geographic information system
- computer based mapping and analytical ability provided by complex software
- maps, diagrams, satellite images and aerial photographs can be stored and manipulated
- spatially referenced data used to solve complex problems
8
Q
ArcMap
A
highly effective software for representing spatial data
9
Q
remote sensing
A
refers to the gathering of information from great distances and over broad areas, usually through instruments mounted on aircraft or orbiting spacecraft/ satellites
10
Q
the shape of earth
A
- oblate ellipsoid
- bulges at the equator and flattens at the poles
- also called a geoid
- close to spherical
11
Q
Earths rotation
A
- counter clockwise (viewed above the north pole)
- west to east ( viewed at equator)
- spinning a little over 1000 mph at equator
12
Q
Latitude
A
- the angle between a point on a parallel and the center of the earth and a point on the equator (up and down)
- parallel
- can be solved for using polaris (north star)
13
Q
Longitude
A
the angle between a point on a meridian at the equator and a point on the prime meridian at the equator as measured at the earths center (left and right)
14
Q
prime meridian
A
in greenwich england
15
Q
small circles
A
created when a plane passes through the earth but does not intersect the center point
16
Q
great circles
A
- created when a plane passes through the earth intersecting the center point
- all meridians
- equator
17
Q
tropic of cancer
A
extreme northern parallel that has the sun directly overhead on the first day of summer (in N. hemisphere)
18
Q
tropic of capricorn
A
extreme southern parallel that has the sun directly overhead on the first dat of summer (in S. hemisphere)
19
Q
solstice
A
- sun stands still
- june 22, subsolar point is 23.5 degrees N (tropic of cancer)
- december 22, subsolar point is 23.5 degrees S (tropic of capricorn)
20
Q
equinox
A
equal amount of sunlight
21
Q
revolution
A
- 365 days to circle the sun
- from north pole in counterclockwise direction
- elliptical path
- orbits on the plane of the ecliptic
22
Q
tilt of the earths axis
A
- rotational axis remains pointed towards polaris (north star)
23
Q
perihelion
A
- when earth is nearest to the sun
- January 3rd
(distance between the sun and earth varies only by about 3% during one revolution)
24
Q
aphelion
A
- when earth is farthest from the sun
- July 4th
(distance between the sun and earth varies only by about 3% during one revolution)
25
reasons for seasons
- revolution
- rotation
- tilted axis
- axis parallelism
- sphericity
26
revolution
- earths journey around the sun
| ~ 365 days
27
rotation
- earth spinning on its axis
- west to east
~ 24 hours for full rotation
28
tilt of earth
- 23.5 degrees
| - means variable amount of daylight during the year
29
axial parallelism
- same alignment around the sun
| - (plane of the ecliptic)
30
sphericity
- geoid shape of earth means insolation gains are not across globe
31
equinox
- circle of illumination passes through both poles
- subsolar point is the equator
- all locations have 12hr of sunlight and 12 hr of darkness
32
Sun
- the primary source of energy for most of the life processes in our biosphere
- heated by continuous nuclear reactions (hydrogen to helium)
- takes energy 8.5 minutes to travel to earth
33
solar wind
- a main output of the sun
| - electrically charged particles (H nuclei and free electrons)
34
radient energy
- a main output of the sun
| - light associated with the electromagnetic spectrum
35
electromagnetic radiation
- a collection of energy waves that travel away from the surface of an object
- all surfaces emit radiation
- hot objects radiation = light
- cooler objects = heat radiation
36
absorption features
- certain wavelengths are absorbed by gasses such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, and ozone
37
windows
- wavelengths that are not absorbed
38
radiation and temperature
- hot objects radiate more energy than cool objects.
| - the hotter the object the shorter the wavelength
39
solar radiation
- rays spread apart as they move away from the sun
- intensity is greatest in the visible portion of the spectrum
- most penetrates earths atmosphere to reach the surface
40
solar constant
- rate of incoming energy
| - about 1361 watts per square meter
41
Insolation
- incoming solar radiation
- amount of solar radiation that reaches upper earth atmosphere
- it is high when the sun is high in the sky
- strongest near the equator and weakest near the poles
- intensity depends on the sun beams angle (most intense - verticle)
42
transmission
- passage of sort and long wave radiation through the atmosphere or water
43
not at solar radiation reaches earths surface because:
- scattering (redirection)
- refraction (path change)
- albedo and reflection (bounce back effect)
- absorption/ interception (conversion of energy to another form)
44
Diffuse radiation
- scattered radiation moving in all directions through the atmosphere
45
Diffuse reflection
- the upward flow of diffuse radiation back into space (about 3%)
46
white objects
reflect nearly all light
47
black objects
absorb nearly all light
48
water
absorbs solar radiation and has low albedo unless the radiation strikes the water surface at a low angle. in that case sun glint raises the albedo
49
daily insolation
average taken over a 24hr day, depends on:
- angle at which the suns rays strike the surface during the day
- how long the location is exposed to those rays
50
daily insolation through the year
- equatorial regions havean energy surplus and polar regions have a deficit
- this fact gives rise to global circulation patterns responsible for much of our weather systems
51
latitude zones
based on the seasonal patterns of daily isolation
- equatorial zone
- tropical zones
- subtropical zones
- midaltitude zones
- subartic and subanartic zones
- north and south polar zones
52
Composition of the atmosphere
```
nitrogen 78%
oxygen 21%
argon 1%
carbon dioxide .035%
water vapor less than 1-2%
ozone
```
53
antartic ozone hole
- the largest on record 29.5 million square miles
| - measured in Dobson units
54
Ozone
- shelters earths surface from ultraviolet radiation
- attacked by synthetic chemicals
- thins during the spring in the southern hemisphere
- hole has gotten smaller since 2006
55
Lake vostok
- coldest place on earth
- under 4km of ice
- researchers contaminated the lake
56
temperature
- measure of kinetic energy
| - more molecular motion = higher temperature
57
heat
the flow of energy from two objects of differing temperatures
58
conduction
molecule to molecule heating (no movement of molecules)
59
convection
circulation, vertical mixing (movement of energy)
60
latent heat
heat associated with phase change (ex. liquid to gas)
61
sensible heat
kinetic energy from molecular motion, measured with thermometer
62
radiation
direct energy flow ex. microwave
63
greenhouse effect
- shortwave radiation passes through atmosphere and is absorbed or reflected at the surface
- surface emits longwave radiation
- counterradiation
64
counterradiation
- water vapor and carbon dioxide act like glass, allowing shortwave radiation through but absorbing and radiating longwave radiation
65
carbon dioxide
- plays the biggest role in global warming
- comes from industrialization
- amounts are increasing
66
Global energy system
- energy is neither created or destroyed
| - flows between the sun and the earths atmosphere
67
net radiation
- difference between incoming and outgoing radiation
68
factors that influence air temperature
- latitude
- surface type
- coastal or interior location
- elevation
- atmospheric and oceanic circulations
69
urban surfaces
- composed of asphalt, concrete, building stone, and similar material. sewers drain away rainwater keeping surfaces dry
- temperatures are hotter in urban areas
70
rural surfaces
- composed of moist soil, vegetation, grass, trees, crops
71
evapotranspiration
- evaporation and transpiration (heat water evaporating)
72
high elevations
- temperatures are generally cooler
- greater day to night range
- density of air decreases with elevation
- greenhouse effect is weaker with elevation
73
temperature inversion
- temperature increases with altitude
74
troposphere
- lowest atmospheric layer
- all human activity takes place here
- weather such as clouds and storms
- thicker closer to the equator
75
aerosols
tiny particles (solid or liquid) that are kept aloft in atmosphere. these are the "seeds" on which precipitation/clouds forms
76
stratosphere
- lies above the troposphereand is the home of strong persistent winds that flow from west to east
- contains the ozone layer
77
environmental temperature lapse rate
average rate of temperature decreases with height
78
Larry Walters
- Lawn Chair Larry
79
equinox
insolation begins at sunrise 6am, peaks at noon, and zero at sunset 6pm
80
June solstice
insolation begins at 4am and ends at 8pm. peak greater, more total insolation
81
December solstice
insolation begins at 8 am and ends at 4 pm. daily total isolation reduced
82
incoming solar radiation (land and water)
- rays strike land and water equally
- Land: radiation cannot penetrate soil or rock so heating is just at the surface (conduction)
- Water: radiation penetrates below the surface distributing heat at depth (convection)
83
Heat capacities (land and water)
- land: low specific heat capacity, temperature increases easily as heat energy is applied
- water: high specific heat capacity, requires five times more energy to raise temperature
84
Evaporation (land and water)
- water: surfaces cool as water molecules evaporate, absorbing heat
- land: surfaces can be cooled by evaporation if water exists near the soil surface, if not then no cooling
85
mixing (land and water)
- water: fluid allows mixing. warming surface water mixes with cooler water to produce uniform temperature. mixes by wind generated waves (convection)
- land: immobile, prevents mixing (conduction)
86
isotherms
- lines of equal temperature drawn on a map
| - these maps show centers of high and low temperatures and temperature gradients (intervals on equal distance)
87
ice cores
- taken from glaciers
| - provides a record of temperatures at the time of ice formation
88
global warming
- enhanced from human activity and greenhouse gasses
89
consequences of global warming
- artic thawing
- polar sea ice melting = rising sea level
- more droughts and floods
90
Hydrosphere
- water in all its forms
- Oceans: nearly all the earths water is contained in the oceans
- ice sheets and glaciers: second largest reservoir of water
- surface water: tiny fraction of water
- atmospheric water: .001% of water
91
hydrologic cycle
- the global flow of water to and from oceans, land, and atmosphere
92
latent heat energy
released or absorbed as water changes from one state to another
93
humidity
amount of water vapor in the air
94
relative humidity
- how close the air is to a point of saturation
| - what weather forecasters speak of
95
saturation
any reduction in temperature or increase in water vapor = condensation and this is the dew point (the temperature at which water vapor becomes visible)
96
specific humidity
The actual quantity of water vapor contained within a parcel of air
97
Equatorial regions
higher insolation evaporates water. Specific humidity and
temperature values high at low
latitudes
98
High-latitude regions
Specific humidity values fall rapidly as temperature decreases
99
Adiabatic Process
- warm air rises (expands) and cools (contracts) which then sinks and heats up and rises etc.
- when this occurs without exchange of heat
100
Adiabatic decrease of temperature
in a rising parcel of air leads to cooling, then to condensation of water vapor into water droplets and the formation of a cloud
101
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
- Rising air parcel not yet been cooled to saturation.
| - dry rate - no condensation during this process
102
clouds
consists of water droplets, ice particles, or a mixture of both.
103
strariform
layered
104
cumuliform
fluffy
105
cirroform
wispy
106
alto
mid altitude
107
nimbus
rain bearing
108
fog
a cloud layer at or close to the earths surface
109
radiation fog
Air temperature at the ground level falls below the dew point. Forms in valleys, low-lying areas, on clear winter nights
110
advection fog
Warm, moist air layer moves over a cold surface. Warm air layer loses heat to the surface, temperature drops below the dew point, and condensation occurs. Forms over oceans when warm, moist air above a warm current moves over a cold current and condensation occurs
111
hail
- frequent in oklahoma and kansas
112
convective precipitation
```
1. Moist air warmed at surface,
expands, less dense than
surrounding air, and rises
2. Cools to dew point,
condensation occurs, clouds
form.
3. Continued updrafts
```
- Thunderstorms common
- Forms on summer days
113
stable air
when all of the surrounding air is close to the same temperature
114
air mass thunderstorms
isolated thunderstorms generated by daytime heating of the land surface
115
pop up storms
- Occur in warm, moist air that is often of maritime origin
- Triggered by solar heating of the land, they start, mature,
and dissipate within an hour or two
- Formation stops at night, since surface heating is no
longer present
116
Microburst
- an intense downdraft or downburst that accompanies the gust front
- intense, localized winds called straight-line winds or plough winds or derechos
117
Mesoscale convective systems
large, organized masses of severe and supercell thunderstorms
118
tornados
- Cyclonic wind circulation (CW) produces uplifting (unstable) air
- Usually involves warm and cooler air at different elevations
- Creates a mesocyclone within a supercell cloud
- Moist air is drawn up to high altitude which releases latent heat/energy which powers the storm
- Often produces hail (sign of circulation), rain, lightening.
- Fujita Scale (EF0 to EF5)
- Most tornadoes rotate in a counterclockwise direction, but a few rotate the opposite way
119
Air pollutants
unwanted substances present in the air. Caused by human and natural activity
120
fallout
Large particulates settle under gravity and return to the surface
121
washout
Particles too small to settle are swept down by precipitation
122
Smog
dense mixture of aerosols and gaseous pollutants over an urban area
123
haze
aerosols obscure distant object
- Occurs naturally in stationary air from human and natural activity
- Humid air: water films grow on suspended nuclei
- Creates aerosol particles large enough to obscure and scatter light, reducing visibility
124
Atmospheric pressure
- produced by the weight of a column of air above a unit area of the Earth’s surface
- measured by a barometer (mercury)
- decreases with altitude (mountain sickness)
125
wind
horizontal movement between two areas of different pressure over Earth’s surface
126
Pressure Gradient
- moves air toward the warm region at low levels and away from the warm region at high levels
- H -> L
127
The Coriolis Effect
- objects divert to the right
- the faster the object the greater the effect
- no effect at equator. big effect at poles
128
The Frictional Force
- opposite direction of wind
| - greatest closest to the surface
129
Local winds
driven by local effects – uneven heating and cooling of the air can set up thermal circulations or topographic differences
130
equatorial trough/ doldrums
Rising air at equator produces surface low pressure known as the equatorial trough. Air in both hemispheres moves toward this equatorial trough, converges and rises – Hadley circulation. Narrow zone of air convergence – Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ). Air is largely moving upward, surface winds are light. Region is known as the doldrums
131
monsoon
an alternation of cool, dry northeasterly airflow with warm, moist southwesterly airflow experienced in south Asia
132
Isobaric surfaces
- slope downward from the low latitudes to the pole
