Exam 1 Flashcards
What is Physiology?
- study of how your body works
- incorporates many different areas of study (chem, anatomy, biology, etc…)
Neurons
- supported by neuroglial cells
- neuroglial cells (glial cells) don’t do much except support neurons
- 5:1
Long Neurons in Leg
- run entire length, think sciatic
- functionally if it’s damaged (spine area or lower) you won’t be able to move your foot/leg)
Organs that contract involuntarily and contain smooth muscle
- GI tract
- airways into lungs-asthma is the inappropriate contraction
- gallbladder
Intercalated Discs
- present in cardiac muscle
- makes all fibers connected electrically
- if these aren’t coordinated the heart won’t pump blood efficiently which means you die
Diaphragm
- largest and most important muscle of breathing
- skeletal muscle
- voluntary and involuntary
- voluntary: holding breath, singing/talking-controls volume and flow rate
- involuntary: sleep, hiccups
Epithelial Tissues
- form membranes that cover the surfaces of the body and various glands
- classified by shape of cells and number of layers
Endocrine and Exocrine Glands
- endocrine are internal
- exocrine open to the external environment
- endocrine: hormones
- exocrine: sweat and oil, mammary, tears, salivary
Total Body Water
- extracellular and intracellular
- plasma is part of extracellular
- interstitial is also part of extracellular
- everything except GI tract (technically outside of the body) and what’s been filtered in the kidney and air in lungs
Intracellular Fluid
- cells have very specific and known concentrations
- fluid inside cells
- all cells pretty much have same composition
Interstitial Fluid
- between cells and blood
- between blood vessels
- extracellular
Extracellular Fluid
- blood and fluid surrounding cells always kept constant
- outside of cells
- plasma is part
- pretty much all alike in composition
- salty
Blood Plasma
- in blood vessels
- not including the cells
Homeostasis
- negative feedback loop
- if something changes you negate the initial change
- set point is normal condition
- change in set point happen which is the error signal
- error signal detected at an integration center and a regulatory mechanism/sensory pathway is activated which sets in motion an effector response and this reduces the change and returns the body to a set point.
Where is the too hot error signal located?
-hypothalamus
What are some temperature effector responses that help increase body temperature under cold conditions, and explain why they are effective.
- decrease in temperature initiates the hypothalamus
- in response it may cause you to shiver which contracts muscles to generate heat
- it may control skin blood flow and send more warm blood internally or constrict skin blood vessels
- or it may change your behavior to seek out warmer places or wear warmer clothes
What are some temperature effector responses that help decrease body temperature under hot conditions, and explain why they are effective.
- increase in temperature initiates hypothalamus
- in response it may cause you to sweat which cools by evaporation-has to do with water vapor in air–humid is harder to stay cool
- or it may control skin blood flow and send more warm blood to skin to dissipate heat
Blood Glucose Regulation
- kept constant
- change in regulated variable-increase in blood glucose
- integrating center-beta cells of pancreas increase signal to effectors
- effectors are cells throughout the body and they take up the blood glucose and decrease levels
Role of Insulin
- opens doors of cells so glucose can go into skeletal muscles and adipose tissue-frees up energy
- then blood glucose decreases
- negative feedback
What happens if insulin is absent or ineffective?
-nothing to put the breaks on blood glucose levels so blood sugar gets too high
Type 1 Diabetes
- insulin absent
- destroyed cells that make insulin
- autoimmune
Type 2 Diabetes
- have insulin but has become ineffective over time-cells don’t respond
- link between weight and this
- sedentary living (obesity and inactivity) cause insulin to be ineffective
- cells don’t want more glucose so they are being poisoned by excess glucose
Treatments for type 1 diabetes
- exogenous insulin treatment
- problems: timing of eating and insulin spikes and monitoring of blood glucose
- have to kinda guess how much you need based on how much you’ve eaten
What do the drugs do that treat type 2 diabetes?
- bind to cell (adipose or skeletal) to let glucose into cell
- drug to lower glucose levels in the body
Treatments for type 2 diabetes
- exercise-most effective, makes cells need more sugar and allows glucose into cells without dependence on insulin
- healthier diet consisting of less sugars
Covalent Bonds
- share electrons evenly
- don’t break
- stable
Polar Molecules and Hydrogen Bonds
- covalent bonds not shared evenly one hogs electrons
- weak bonds
- negative energy bonds stronger (liquid)
- positive energy bonds break (water vapor)
Why do molecules with polar covalent bonds so readily dissolve in water?
- like molecules dissolve like molecules
- dispersal and dissolve
Fats
- don’t dissolve in water
- nonpolar
- hydrophobic
What kind of molecules can easily move through the membrane?
- hydrophobic, nonpolar
- small
- lipid soluble
- has to be dissolved by membrane to get in
Major atoms
- 99% of you is made of these
- carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen
- carbon and hydrogen bond with single or double covalent bonds
- super stable so lots of you is chemically stable
Functional Groups
-reactive, make chemical changes to do stuff in the body
Reactive Oxygen Species and Antioxidants
-excessive amounts of ROS cause damage to biomolecules and have been linked to diseases
-antioxidants combine with free radical electrons to make more stable species
0reacting with antioxidant and not critical body pieces like DNA
Carbohydrates
- class of molecules made from carbon and water
- general formula CnH2nOn
- monosaccharaides are glucose, fructose, and galactose and can be combined in chains to make polysaccharides
What is the use of storing polysaccharides in the liver and skeletal muscle?
- skeletal muscles=quick energy for muscle movement
- liver glycogen-pump around body as needed, convert polysaccharides into glucose to make blood glucose
Glycemic Index
- per serving of food, not fixed unit of carbohydrates
- crude measure of how much glucose will rise
- rise in blood sugar produced by a type of food is related to this
- defined as increase in blood sugar that results from eating a defined quantity of carbohydrates from food
Factors that influence glycemic index of foods
- complexity of carbs
- how readily the body breaks it down in the GI tract, amount of fats/proteins->slow down absorption
Glycemic Load Effect
- glycemic load is classification of different carbs that measures their impact on body and body sugar
- measurement of the amount a serving of a specific food will alter your blood sugar
Lipids
- 4 main classes
- triglycerides
- phospholipids
- eicosanoids
- steroids
- insoluble in water
- triglycerides are higher in energy density than glycogen
- additional type is ketone bodies
Why is it efficient to make triglyceride the primary stored form of energy for the body?
- energy dense molecules in almost no water
- skeletal muscle glycogen is heavy and not efficient in calories, increased calories will also increase weight
Phospholipids
- hydrophilic polar head
- hydrophobic nonpolar tails
- glycerol backbone
- this allows them to survive in water by having the hydrophilic part
- micelle is in GI tract; arranged with heads toward the outside and tails toward center in a circle
Anabolic Steroids
- produce more muscle strength in body
- makes muscle grow rapidly
Proteins
- made up of amino acids
- all have nitrogen-builds individual proteins
- proteins are specialized
Protein Structure
- primary sequence of amino acids tacked together
- secondary: individual amino acids twisted into helix (alpha helix)
- tertiary: beta pleated sheet; alpha helix wrapped around to tertiary, won’t work unless this structure is right
- quaternary: very complex and specific twisted structure important to hemoglobin
Prosthetic Group
-has something in it that’s not a protein
Why is there a daily protein requirement but not similar ones for carbs or fats?
- proteins contain amino acids and our body can’t make them on their own
- bod already has stores of fats and carbs
- if you’re only eating fats and carbs you’re not getting nitrogen
Lipoproteins
- combo of lipid and protein
- key for transport of cholesterol in blood
Protein Function
- structural/contractile: stringy long proteins in muscle (actin and myosin)
- catalytic: enable reactions to run faster than they would on their own (enzymes)
- immunological: cells designed to remember viruses so they can create antibodies (proteins) to destroy cells infected with virus
- transporters and carriers: most important in cell membrane; carries things in that couldn’t get in otherwise
- regulatory: manage speed of important processes (DNA replication)
Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids
- proteins determine so much
- each of us has 30,000 different proteins
- each protein is coded for by a gene
- two things that matter: which genes came from biological parents and of those genes which do you have that are chosen to make significant amounts of proteins
What cellular events had to happen to increase muscle mass?
- using up and making more protein
- muscle damage
- cells hypertrophy (enlarge) or hyperplasia (cells divide)
- make more actin and myosin (specific proteins
Explain how genes and gene expression changed when increasing loads were placed on muscles.
- for hyperplasia regulatory genes must be expressed to make proteins divide
- express more gens for actin and myosin; don’t change structure just make lots more
Nucleic Acid Structure
-make up instruction booklet that is DNA
Plasma Membrane
- barrier
- phospholipid bilayer
- keeps extracellular and intracellular different because they have different compositions
- membrane proteins function as channels
Why do water-soluble substance require a channel to get though plasma membrane while lipid soluble substances
- polar molecules can’t get through-channel made out of proteins
- aquaporins-small enough to allow one water molecule at a time-always passive
- common ions that require membrane channels: Na+, Ca2+, K+, Cl-, water, glucose
What are some ways a drug can block activation of pain receptor (happens when membrane channel for sodium ions opens) and act as a local anesthetic?
- give a drug that occludes Na+ channels or doesn’t allow them to open
- morphine allows pain receptors to activate but that pain is interpreted as not that bad
Cytoskeleton and microtubules
- give structure
- some cells this moves the cell
- also aid in division
Lysosomes and Perixosomes
- l: recycles old and worn out parts, breaks down to remove
- peroxisome: has enzymes that deal with reactive oxygen species–>makes less toxic
Mitochondria and ribosomes
- energy from oxidative metabolism
- R: makes new proteins
Rough ER and Smooth ER
- rough makes protein hormones
- smooth makes steroid hormones
Golgi Apparatus
- details final protein product
- shapes, sized, clipped, and sorted just right
Protein Synthesis
- happens in cell nucleus and DNA
- never leaves the nucleus, it’s copied and that’s whats taken out
- have double strand of DNA with the gene of interest on it, then you sense the strand of DNA and transcribe the triplets that make the gene of interest, mRNA is the complementary pair of this section that leaves the nucleus-transcribed as complementary copy that can be interpreted by cells
- ex: insulin-all cells have this gene but only beta cells of the pancreas can activate
Transcription
-photocopy of DNA instructions onto mRNA
Translation
- building protein amino acid by amino acid from the mRNA instructions
- uses tRNA
- has anticodon that matches up to what’s on mRNA
- ex: increase in actin gene expression leads to increase in actin mRNA which increases ribosomes that increase efficient binding to mRNA to ribosomes
Factors that increase or decrease rate of transcription of genes for the major contractile proteins actin and myosin in skeltal muscle
- increase: working out
- decrease: injury/illness-body preoccupied with something different or disuse of muscle
- sensed by cell via energy use, stress/force, inflammation, damage to muscle (microtears) stimulates actin and myosin gene expression-energy goes where needed, replenishes, grows, and strengthens
Prolonged weightlessness causes rapid reduction in mass and strength of bone. Why does this happen in terms of regulation of gene transcription?
- no stress or signal (gravity) to the cells that they need to grow so no transcription is activated
- no bearing of weight by bones says that force stimulates protein/matrix production
How is mRNA different from simple photocopy of specific portion (gene) on DNA
- complementary to photocopy of DNA
- bases are slightly different
How does tRNA differ from mRNA in terms of base sequences and codons?
- tRNA has a set of anticodons that match up to mRNA’s set of codons
- tRNA has the same base sequence as DNA
Metabolism and Metabolic Pathways
- the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life
- A+X–>B–>C–>D+Y
- examples: hydrolysis, phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, oxidation-reduction