Exam 1 (36% of Grade;His notes through 6.1) Flashcards
1
Q
anthropology
A
the exploration of human diversity in time and space
study of the whole of the human condition
biology, society, language and culture
2
Q
sub-fields of anthropology
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physicla/biological, archaeology, linguistic anthropology, sociocultural anthropology
3
Q
physical/biological anthropology
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The study of human and primate evolution and physiological adaptation over space and time.
4
Q
archaeology
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The study of past societies by uncovering and investigating the remains they left behind
5
Q
Linguistic Anthropology
A
the study of language in its social and cultural context
6
Q
(Socio)Cultural Anthropology
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The holistic study of human societies, both past and present, with a specific focus
on culture.
7
Q
how can we explain human differences
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several ways but early theorists primarily focussed on theories of: degenerationism progrerssivism/unilineal evolution diffusion heliocentric diffusion culture circles
8
Q
Degenerationism:
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we were all once civilized, but after dispersing (Tower of Babel incident) some degenerated while others remained civilized.
9
Q
Progressivism:
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human history is characterized by advances from primitive to civilized. Differences emerge from different experiences.
also called unilineal evolution
10
Q
Diffusion:
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Cultural traits originate in one area and then spread to other areas.
11
Q
Heliocentric Diffusion:
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All cultural traits originate from a single source (e.g., ancient Egypt).
12
Q
Culture Circles:
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Cultural traits originated at multiple sources.
13
Q
What was Lamarck’s theory on why there is human difference?
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Geographic or climate changes force life forms to adapt
enivronmental determinism
14
Q
What was Darwin’s theory on why there is human difference?
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Concept of natural selection. Some variations more beneficial for survival and reproduction than others (long-term adaptation).
15
Q
What was Herbert Spencer’s theory on why there is human difference?
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Human societies analogous to biological organisms. Identify functions of “organs” in maintaining society.
16
Q
Assumptions and steps in the comparative method
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Assumption 1: there is a psychic unity of mankind (humans everywhere think alike)
Assumption 2: all societies undergo
parallel but independent evolutionary stages.
Step 1: Place all societies on a scale from “primitive” to civilized”.
Step 2: Analyze “living fossils” (the so-called
primitive societies) as evidence of previous evolutionary stages.
Step 3: Compare institutions (e.g. political
systems, kinship, religion) to understand evolutionary trajectory from primitive to civilized
17
Q
Tylor perspective on anthro
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a focus on religion
from most primitive to least primitive
animism–>polytheism–> monotheism
18
Q
Lewis Henry Morgan perpective and definitions
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focussed on social institutions
savagery–> barbarism–>civilization
said there were 2 evolutions of governement
societas (based on kinship): Gens (patrilineal clan) as basis of organization. Complexity evolves thru descent
group of related clans, tribes, and confederacy of tribes.
civitas (based on property): Territory as basis of organization. Complexity evolves thru
county/province (collection of wards), nation (collection of counties)
19
Q
social darwinism
A
Some societies are more fit than others.
Justification for European powers to dominate other societies (a moral imperative).
20
Q
Social Darwinism and Racial Theories
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Racial groups classified from primitive to civilized.
Some races deemed inferior to others (“biological determinism”).
Justification for social stratification.
21
Q
The Methods of Ethnology (Franz Boas)
A
Physicist turned geographer (Berlin)
interest in studying culture.
developped anthropology as a methodologically rigorous field of inquiry. Proponent of fieldwork. Rejection of arm-chair approaches.
Critiqued grand theories on race, social evolution, and cultural determinism.
22
Q
Boas’ Critique of Unilineal Social Evolution
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Unsubstantiated Hypothesis: Historical changes in cultural life follow definite laws which apply to every society.
Cultural similarities can arise through diffusion, adaptation to similar environments, and/or historical accident.
23
Q
Boas’ Critique of Diffusionism
A
Unsubstantiated Hypothesis: historical changes in cultural life are the result of contact between more and less “civilized” peoples.
Must assume migration/contact over enormous geographical areas (e.g., Egypt and Mexico 2,500 years ago).
Ignores possibility of independent invention.
24
Q
Boas’ Historical Particularism
A
Cultures can only be understood with reference to their particular historical developments.
no general theories (e.g., evolution, diffusion) can explain processes of culture change.
Each culture is unique and must be studied in terms of its uniqueness (precursor to cultural relativism)
25
Racial Theories and Anthropometrics
Cranial dimensions reflect racial differences.
Assumption that such traits are biologically determined, hence, races are “fixed” categories.
Assumed connections between “race” and intelligence, aptitude, etc.
26
Boas’ Rejection of Racial Theories
1908 Study: Cranial dimensions in immigrants and their kids.
Evidence: Immigrant kids had different skull shapes than parents—result of different diets, habits, environment,
etc. Therefore, cranial morphology is not an immutable marker of “race”; it can vary through time and according to environment.
27
Anthropology Today
Anthropology now separates sub-disiplines (used to combine)
E.g., Boas challenged a cultural issue (racism) using tools of physical anthropology (anthropometry).
Nowadays the sub-disciplines operate more or less independent from each other.
An Exception: Biocultural approaches study relationship between culture and human biology.
Adaptation: The processes by which organisms cope with environmental stresses. Can have biological and/or cultural dimensions.
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What do Anthropologists Produce?
Ethnography
Ethnology
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Ethnography
A descriptive account of a particular community, society, or culture. Based on long-term, first-hand fieldwork. “
Old School” Approach: Highly descriptive and holistic account of a particular society at one point in time.
Contemporary Approach: “Problem Oriented” research. Less holistic and more focused on single issue. Emphasis on connections with world system.
30
Ethnology
Examines, analyzes, and compares the results of ethnographies—the data gathered in different societies.
Goal is to make generalizations about society and culture through detailed comparisons (grand theories).
31
Anthropology as a humanities discipline
Humanities Approach
Provide readers with an empathic understanding of another society.
Reduce the perception of cultural differences between “us” and “them”.
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Anthro as a social science discipline
Provide plausible and reliable explanations of social processes.
Provide data and perspectives that have tangible applications.
33
Kluckhohn Queer Customs
Why do people differ?
Destined by God or fate to different habits? Because of climate differences? Because of biological differences?
“because they were brought up that way.”
34
Society vs Culture
Society: group of people who interact more with each other than with others.
Culture: Distinctive ways of life of such a group of people.
35
Kluckhohn on Culture
Every human being is imbued with culture (“to be human is to be cultured”).
“The total life way of a people, the social legacy the individual acquires from his group.”
A way of thinking, feeling, and believing acquired by the individual as a member of a group.
Culture “constitutes a kind of blueprint for all of life’s activities.”
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KOTTAK def of culture
Traditions and customs that are transmitted through learning and that influence behaviors and beliefs.
Culture is treated as an environment that influences and is influenced by human action.
Culture is not static. It is always changing.
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Culture as a symbol
Symbol: Something verbal or non-verbal, within a particular language or culture, that comes to stand for
something else.
Cultural learning depends on symbols (signs that have no necessary or natural connection to the things they
stand for or signify).
38
Enculturation:
The social process by which culture is learned and transmitted (within generations, across
generations, or across societies).
Direct Transmission and Transmission through Observation
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Margaret Mead & Gregory Bateson on enculturation
Studied how kids are raised in other societies. Early theoretical insights on enculturation through cross-cultural
comparison.
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Gender and Enculturation
How do boys and girls learn what constitutes proper behavior for their respective genders?
How is gendered behavior instilled through play?
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Culture as integrated
if one part changes the other parts change as well
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Agency and Practice as a means of cultural change
Incremental change over time due to the cumulative actions in of individuals within a society
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culture and the individual
culture regulates our lives – constant pressure to follow certain behaviors.
Cultural rules are subject to interpretation,
Culture influences, but does not determine, the behaviors of individuals;
most people do not blindly follow cultural norms and rules.
Culture is used actively and creatively by individuals. Therefore, culture is not static but is constantly changing.
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Agency:
“the actions that individuals take, both alone and in groups, in forming and transforming cultural identities.” (Kottak) Or, “The capacity of human beings to affect their own life chances and those of others and to play a role in the formation of the social realities in which they participate.”
45
Practice Theory
Cultural rules are subject to interpretation, manipulation, and contestation.
Individuals within every society have different motives and intentions, degrees of power and influence (agency).
46
Diffusion and Acculturation:
Concepts to explain cultural exchanges between societies.
47
universals
generalities
particularities
Universals: some traits are common to all humans (language, use of symbols, religious beliefs, concept of family).
Generalities: some traits are widespread but not universal (nuclear family, monotheism).
Particularities: some traits are confined to a single place, culture, or society.
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Diffusion
Borrowing between cultures either directly or through intermediaries.
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Acculturation
The exchange of cultural features (e.g., language, clothing) that results when groups come into continuous firsthand contact; the original cultural patterns of either or both groups may be altered, but the groups remain distinct.
50
Reconfigurations
Cultures contain complex arrays of beliefs, symbols, practices, traditions, etc.
Any cultural trait that is borrowed will be adapted and modified to fit the new context.
What looks similar from the outside can have very different meanings and associations.
51
Minor on the body rituals of the Nacirema
purpose was to: Document unusual magical beliefs and practices of poorly understood group with a highly developed market economy. Focus of ritual activity is the body.
the belief system of the people was that the body is ugly with a tendency to debilitate and decay so ritualistic behaviors done to combat this
52
Barland on "The Gym"
the gym is an arena where the 'modern body' takes shape
The study: participant observation at bodybuilding gyms and public competition
- in-depth interviews
- key informants such as top ranked body builder in gym
acceptance contingent on being active partner in the training, dieting, and doping regime.
- Climbing social hierarchy contingent on commitment, knowledge acquisition, and participation in competitions.
- Self-discipline as core value: success contingent on balancing training, resting, dieting, and hormone intake.
53
Barland on Training Dieting and Doping in 'The Gym'
Training: Systematic to develop all muscle groups. Expression of character, will, and self-discipline.
Dieting: Strategic, thorough planning. Dual intent to build muscle and reduce fat during “defining” period.
Doping: Enhancement rather than a substitute for training. Perceived as positive application of scientific
knowledge (disregarding health consequences).
54
Insights and conclusion on Barland's study in "the Gym"
Insights
- Constructing self-identity through methodical, meticulous self-discipline of the body.
- Individualistic pursuit (self-identity) done as member of a tight-knit community (sharing of knowledge, techniques, and results).
55
You are How you Eat- Cooper article
“Food habits communicate symbolic messages.”Hierarchy;Inclusion/Exclusion(Commensality)
How you eat conveys messages about your gender, age, social status, etc.
Symbolic Gestures: Indicate interest by accepting rice bowl with both hands, bring bowl to mouth while eating. Express deference by allowing elders to eat first, offer to others before serving self, share common foods.
“...the degree to which a Chinese practices the rules of etiquette marks his class position ...”
56
the aims of ethnology-Boas
he critiaues accounts of of ther people that were used to generate early theories about human differences
devels concept of ethnocentrism
says that close study of other societies reveals that all groups have: definite religious ideas and traditions, make inventions, have customary laws that govern behavior
57
ethnocentrism
The tendency to view one’s own culture as superior.
The tendency to apply one’s own cultural values in judging the behavior and beliefs of people in other cultures.
Ethnocentrism is an obstacle to cross-cultural understanding.
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Ethnography and culture--Spradley
Reject “Naïve Realism”
The idea that all people define the world of objects, events, and concepts the same way.
Does “love” have the same meaning in all societies?
Does “death” have the same meaning in all societies?
-Understand three aspects of human experience:
What people do (cultural behavior).
What people know (cultural knowledge). Things people make and use (cultural artifacts).
For Spradley culture = cultural knowledge. “the acquired knowledge [thru enculturation] people use to interpret experience and generate behavior.”
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Naive realism
ethnocentrism without value judgement
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Cultural knowledge that is explicit
Cultural knowledge that people can talk about or communicate with ease.
e.g., items such as clothing, actions such as playing, emotional states such as sadness.
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Tacit (implied, understood) Culture
Cultural knowledge that people lack words for or that lies outside our explicit awareness.
e.g., speaking distances, social space.
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to best understand another culture:
Reject naïve realism (belief that meanings of concepts are the same everywhere).
Reject ethnocentrism
Adopt a stance of methodological cultural relativism (study how people in that culture explain and ascribe significance to their own beliefs and behaviors)
63
cultural relativism
Behavior in one culture should not be judged by the standards of another culture.
Dilemma:
-should we accept all cultural practices on grounds that we should not judge others according to own standards?
-Does cultural relativism compromise one’s ability to make moral judgments?
64
Gardening Tips (Cronk)
How to respond to the relativist position, “It’s their culture, who are we to judge it?”
BUT Do cultural explanations = moral justifications?
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Biological Analogy from Cronk on Cultural Relativism
Explanations for infanticide: increases “fitness” of male perpetrator”, increases “parental investment” of father
Naturalistic Fallacy: If something is “natural” then it must somehow be “good”.
-Biological explanation is not a moral justification
66
Cronk on the Culturalistic Fallacy
The task of ethnography is to explain behavior (“this is what it is”).
The task is not to justify behavior in moral terms (“this is what it ought to be”).
Cultural explanation IS NOT moral justification.
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Cronk on What type of cultural relativism we should use
Moral Relativism: ethical standards and morality are culturally based and therefore subject to a person's individual choice.
- moral and ethical rules of all cultures deserve equal respect
- We should refrain from passing moral judgment on cultures other than our own.
Methodological Relativism: “To understand another culture fully, you must try to see how the people in that culture see things.”
Cultural explanation IS NOT moral justification
tldr we should do methodological relativism and not morally justify all acts of other cultures
morale shouldn't play a role
68
anthropologist-"subject" relationship
-integrated in the communities they study
-Fictive kinship relationships
Good data contingent on rapport;
rapport contingent on acceptance.
-must remain somewhat detached in order to retain objectivity
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Ethnographic research always involves ___ and sometimes involves____
Always:
-Direct, firsthand observation of behavior
-Conversation with varying degrees of formality
-Detailed work with key consultants about particular areas of community life.
-Nuanced relationships with research subjects and gatekeepers.
Sometimes:
-Longitudinal research
-Team research—coordinated research by multiple scholars.
-Multi-sited research—studying various sites and systems in which people participate.
70
Fieldwork and the Empirical Tradition (Evans-Pritchard 1)
big deal in anthro--Research focus on kinship as a basis for political organization.
Fieldwork in Africa during height of British colonialism.
He noted
-contrasting views of the primitive man (as both animalistic and gentle)
-the shifting portrayals in studying 'the other'
(from exploration to colonialism)
-a scholarly shift (from historians and philosophers who didn't make first hand obs--> natural sciences who make obs and hypotheses and test)
-previous methods included armchair scholars as well as early fieldworkers who didn't know natural language and didn't fully immerse selves
-notes malinowskis new standard:
-spend sufficient time “in the field” (one year minimum, preferably two)
-live among subjects of study
communicate in their language
study entire culture and social life
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Malinowski
established anthropologist 1884-1942
- economic anthro
- established participant observation as key method
- problems he saw were that: westerners were ignant of natice native culture;ethnocentric; biased and didn't know the lang
- he says you need foundations to be a good ethnographer
72
how Malinowski developed good relationships with the Melanesians
Acquire “the feeling” for proper behavior. Establish trust and rapport. Become part of the landscape (less reflexivity). Develop empathic understanding of native life. Look for, and document, order and structure where others see disorder and chaos.
-kula ring--there was a ceremonial gift exchange network; possessing items enhances individual's status
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Malinowski's impact
Trobriand Islands 1914-1918 (longer fieldwork that any predecessor). First to conduct research using local language. First to conduct research while living in the community under study. London School of Economics: trained a generation of anthropologists (e.g. Evans-Pritchard) and instilled new methodological rigor.
74
Evans Pritchard research in the Colonial Era in Sudan--Nuer
-British conquest of Sudan. Nuer unknown and antagonistic. Govt. commissions
study by anthropologist.
Goal: to reveal Nuer system of governance so they can be better controlled.
Research Obstacles: Servants didn't wanna work among former enemies. Communication
(lacked interpreter; had to learn difficult language). Treated with suspicion (British colonial rep.).
Major Finding:
-genealogical method revealed kinship basis of Nuer political organization.
75
Geertz on Balinese Cockfight
Major proponent of Interpretive Anthropology. Goals: to demonstrate how seemingly irrational institutions and practices actually have a cultural logic; to provide reader with an “empathic understanding” of
another society
Acceptance: Dramatic event allowed Geertz to establish rapport. Rapport = relation, especially one that is harmonious or sympathetic.
Impact of Geertz’s Narrative: Self-reflexive style of ethnographic writing was uncommon at the time.
Henceforth, the “ethnographic vignette” becomes standard formula for starting an ethnographic account.
76
participant observation
-live in community
-Learn the local vernacular.
-Learn how to behave in an appropriate manner.
-Gather data through observation, conversation, etc.
-its not used as sole method for data and answering research q
- it is used for gaining a basic
understanding of the society being studied so that the researcher knows what types of questions to ask, and how to ask them
77
advantages of long-term fieldwork
- cultivate social relationships (lknow more people and increase rapport)
- Seasonal Perspective-Understanding annual cycle is crucial for studying a range of issues
- can see change
- on first visit you collect benchmark data--allows you to see change
78
triangulation
allows you to understand more fully
- textual data
- participant observation
- economic data
79
Johnson on "the active participant observer"
need to consider: Freedom of social movement. Type of informant relations. Type of information that can be accessed. Information reliability. Degree of power and autonomy associated with a particular role.
Participant observation involves strategic choices to occupy specific social roles. Good choices facilitate rapport, neutrality, access to information, data reliability, etc. Bad choices compromise validity of a study.
80
Sterk on "Fieldwork on Prostitution"
- didn't "go native" to study their lives--not necessary and not safe
- develloped rapport though showing desire to understand and 'passing test' to show that she is trustworthy
- gains empathic understanding by hanging out with and interviewing prostitutes
- she also gave back with services and goods
81
Gmelch on Studying Baseball
maneuvered thought the media relations director and fit in by learning baseball terms and key players
- played role of researcher/reporter
- he had an insider’s perspective from previous experience (empathic understanding). Yet analytical detachment.
82
Osburg on "meeting the Godfather"
studied gender and msculininty in elite male network
-did fieldwork in places where elite males socialize and solidify relationships
83
studying up
usually anthropologists study down into groups more socially marginalized then they are--How can anthropologists study processes of economic and political domination? How can
anthropologists study elites?
84
accessing the elite--issues
Gatekeepers: livelihood on the line if the wrong person gets through.
Time: elites are busy, reluctant to devote adequate time to researcher.
Secrecy: more disincentives than incentives for elite to allow outsider into the inner sanctum.
85
reporting on the elite
Marginal or Powerful?
An ex-peasant struggling against unjust system (the “righteous bandit”)? An integral part of the violent side of state domination and accumulation? Does a stance of empathic understanding (or cultural relativism) risk humanizing and rationalizing violence and corruption?
86
genealogical method
- Basic data gathered thru demographic survey.
- Construct “family trees” to map relationships.
- Kinship system illuminate basis of political organization, population growth, settlement expansion, etc.
87
Surveys
Same question asked of everybody. Answers can be categorized or quantified.
88
Statistical Data from Surveys
Contextual background information. Snapshot of present (cross-sectional data). Change over time (longitudinal data). Reveals more about what is happening than about why it is happening.
89
Semi-Structured Interviewing
Use of an “interview schedule”.
Everybody asked same questions.
Asking same questions facilitates comparison (e.g., differences by gender? By age? By wealth?)
-Guided yet flexible. People express answers in own terms yet tangents are sometimes important.
90
Key Cultural Consultants (“Key Informants”)
Somebody with especially good knowledge about a particular aspect of life.
Interviewed in-depth and repeatedly.
91
Person-Centered Interviewing
-Informant: interviewee as expert witness (key informant/key cultural consultant). Conveys information about generally held cultural ideals, beliefs, and practices.
-Respondent: interviewee as object of study.
Conveys information on what they actually do in certain circumstances.
92
Combining research methods (Childs)
```
used structured interview
participant observation
in-depth interview
genealogical method
archival research
```
93
Reliability and establishing reliability
The ability to be relied on or depended on, as for accuracy, honesty, or achievement. Able to be believed; likely to be true or correct.
to estab:
- spend a long time in the field
- use first person
- language proficiency
- show that you have established good rapport
94
Making Anthropology Public (Scheper-Hughes)
point that ethnographic research is often only available to people versed in theory/jargon, and those able to access info behind paywalls (eg Jstorr)
says important issues should be made available to the public
problems:
-may taint data and analysis because Ethnography requires thorough understanding (i.e., a lot of time) before publishing results.
Journalism requires publishing before attaining thorough understanding
public anthropology shouldn't expect rewards but should be seen as a right and privilege
95
Repricity
ethical obligation to give back to those you study
96
the dual engagement
personal engagement as needing to get along with people
but you also need as much info out of them as possible
97
Researcher safety and adaptability
example of research done on migrants who had crossed the border, been caught by US gov and returned to mexico; what to do when cartel violence erupts and researcher is close to shootings
in this case research was terminated when violence came too close (according to Principle investigator)
some felt research should continue because violence not targeted at researchers
Scholars, not university administrators, should be the ones to determine when to suspend research due to safety issues.
98
Nonverbal Communication
The only language for most of human history.
The first form of communication you learn
A form of communication that you use constantly in everyday life.
We communicate messages through a variety of nonverbal means (symbols)
Nonverbal gestures vary cross-culturally
Facial Expressions: universal, part of our shared evolutionary heritage
Hand Gestures: vary cross-culturally, part of our divergent cultural heritages.
We regularly monitor nonverbal communication in others and adjust our behaviors accordingly.
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Kinesics:
study of communication through expressions, gestures, body postures/stances
100
speaking distance
varies cross-culturally
tacit knowledge tells you based on the context how close to be to someone else when talking
101
nonverbal communications in political performance
Context: performing to potential voters via live audience, television audience, print media.
Movement: forward toward the audience.
Gestures and Expressions: Clapping (positive attitude), Smiling (friendly), Pointing (personal connections).
102
language and enculturation
they go hand in hand
We learn cultural patterns and expectations while learning language.
Sherpa Example: use of commands marks status which is based on relative age of speakers (commands used even when commanded action already being done)
103
How do people use language to shape the way we view the world?
politics and advertising
The knowledge that language shapes the way we view the world can be used strategically.
Politics: garner support by shaping perceptions. Advertising: create positive impression of products.
104
focal vocabulary
Specialized sets of terms and distinctions that are particularly important to certain groups.
ex- Inuit terms for snow; Mongol terms for horse; professional chefs’ terms for knives.
105
Gunspeak: Gun Culture and Everyday Communication (Myers)
Example of a close connection between language and culture.
Cultural Presupposition: Common knowledge and understanding among members of a society.
US speech is filled with references to firearms.
Abundance of metaphors associated with firearms indicates cultural importance (similar to focal vocabulary).
Myers’ Observation: Gunspeak reflects societal obsession with firearms
106
Rapport Talk and Report Talk (Tannen)
rapport talk-lean in, touch, eye contact, intimate posture (used by women to build rapport with each other)
Report Talk-Distance, no touching, look elsewhere, defensive postures (used by men to establish a hierarchy and relative ranks among themselves)
Therefore:
Men use talking to get and hold attention and to establish a hierarchy.
Women use talking to establish rapport and build social relations.
Outcome: men more quiet in domestic domain (with wife), more talkative in public domain (at party).
107
Sociolinguistics
Relationships between social variations (ethnicity, status, gender, etc.) and linguistic variations (dialect, slang, tone, etc.)
108
Style Shifts
Using different variations of a language depending on the social context.
Choice of words, intonation, and body gestures influenced by status of speaker and listener.
Can be conscious or unconscious.
Important social skill – those who are adept can maneuver through complex society.
Discordance and Social Disruption: Failure to follow expected norms can cause problems.
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Diglossia
many langs have several dialects.
“High” = more formal; usage signals higher education and/or social class.
“Low” = less formal; usage signals lower education and/or social class.
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Speech & Social Stratification
People associate speech patterns with social, political, and economic status.
Speech patterns of some groups associated with lack of education/sophistication.
Sociolinguistic discrimination: using linguistic features as evaluator of competence.
111
Sociolinguistic discrimination:
using linguistic features as evaluator of competence.
112
Symbolic Capital (Bourdieu)
Skillful use of linguistic practices can be converted into social and economic benefits.
Values of dialects vary – using some enhances access to resources (e.g. jobs, bank loans, networks of people).
Some dialects are stigmatized and considered markers of inferiority.
113
BEV (Black English Vernacular) AAVE (African-American Vernacular English)
A distinct dialect of English.
Has own phonological rules and syntax.
Has lower Symbolic Capital than SE (Standard English).
Users regularly engage in Code Switching: where individuals in multilingual (or multi-dialect) settings switch
language usage according to social context.
114
Code-Switching (Hill’s usage)
different from style shift
The use of more than one language concurrently in a conversation.
Pattern of linguistic usage typical among multilingual people.
115
Inner Sphere:
```
blurred boundaries (Spanish/English).
Speakers engage in extensive “code-switching” (mixing English and Spanish).
```
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Outer Sphere
pressure to keep languages “in order.”
| “Failure” of linguistic order (e.g., engaging in code-switching) becomes marker of “race”.
117
Using Spanish (Hispanic Americans):
“outer sphere” as site of racialization. Spanish with non-peers marks one as different and dangerous.
118
Using Mock Spanish (White Americans):
“inner sphere” as site of racialization. Spanish with peers marks one as congenial and worldly.
119
mock spanish
Semantic Pejoration (a change of meaning for the worse: adiós, hasta la vista).
Suffixes and modifiers to create pejorative forms (el cheap o, el presidente).
Hyperanglicized representations of words (grassy-ass, Fleas Navidad)
120
“Racial” Dimensions of Mock Spanish
Direct Indexicality: indexes that are understood (e.g. “I’ll do it mañana” signals you as congenial, down-to-earth,
folksy person.).
Indirect Indexicality: reliance on stereotypes (typically negative) to make sense.
Hill’s Argument: Mock Spanish is racial discourse by directly indexing congeniality of speaker while indirectly
indexing negative stereotypes.
121
Email My Heart (Gershon)
How Does New Media Transform Social Relationships?
Gershon centers on how people use new technologies to sever intimate relationships.
Old media shapes how we use and think about new media.
New media changes peoples’ ideologies and uses of old media.
More impersonal options (email, Facebook) make phone more desirable than alternatives for breaking up
In break-ups determining intentions is foremost concern.
Media evaluated in terms of how easy one can do this
Conversational turn taking facilitates exploration of intentions.
No media can rival face-to-face in this regard.
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Power
the ability to exercise one’s will over others.
123
Authority
the socially approved use of power
124
Sociopolitical Organization.
“The exercise of power and the regulation of relations among groups and their
representatives.”
125
Political Regulation.
The processes of decision-making, dispute management, and conflict resolution. Who has
the power and authority to make decisions, manage disputes, and resolve conflicts?
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Sociopolitical Typology
From band-->tribe-->cheifdom-->state follows general scheme of from foraging-->horticulutre-->pastorialism-->agriculutrue-->industrial
this is simplistic but useful for describing some general principles
Socioeconomic stratification exists in most societies.
Differential power and authority.
Differential access to resources.
Stratum endogamy (people encouraged or tend to marry within socioeconomic class).
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Marx on Socioeconomic stratification
Bourgeoisie owned means of production (factories, mines, large farms). Proletariat (working class) sell labor to survive. Radically opposed interests; analytical focus on class conflict. Class consciousness leads to revolutionary change.
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Max Weber on socioeconomic stratification
Three dimensions of social stratification
| Economic Status: Based on wealth. Political Status: based on power. Social Status: Based on prestige
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Hegemony (Antonio Gramsci)
Dominance of one social group over another by means of an ideology that justifies why a stratified social order (e.g., by socioeconomics, race/ethnicity, gender) is in everybody’s best interest.
Theoretical explanation for how a diverse, complex society can be dominated by one social group.
The Logic: Coercive rule is expensive and unstable
Better option is to persuade subordinates that social order is in everybody’s best interest.
-Ideology (state level; political) creates illusion that relations between dominant and subordinate groups are mutually beneficial.
Goal: get subordinate groups to comply with stratified social order without using coercion.
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Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (James Scott)
Seminal writing by a political scientist.
provided Theoretical framework for studying class relations and resistance.
Major impact on anthropology.
“Real Resistance”: Organized, systematic, and cooperative. Principled or selfless. Revolutionary consequences.
“Incidental Activities”: Unorganized, unsystematic and individual. Opportunistic and ‘self-indulgent.’ Have no
revolutionary consequences.
People with political or social agendas understand the power of the media as an informal means of social control. Intent of much advertising (e.g., public health) is not to educate people, but to shame, scare, or humiliate them to changing behavior.
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“Real Resistance” (Scott)
Organized, systematic, and cooperative. Principled or selfless. Revolutionary consequences.
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“Incidental Activities”: (Scott)
(Everyday resistance) Unorganized, unsystematic and individual. Opportunistic and ‘self-indulgent.’ Have no
revolutionary consequences.
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Everyday Resistance (Scott)
“... any act(s) by member(s) of the class that is (are) intended either to mitigate or to deny claims (e.g. rents, taxes, deference) made on that class by superordinate classes (e.g. landlords, the state, owners of machinery, moneylenders) or to advance its own claims (e.g. work, land, charity, respect) vis-à-vis these superordinate classes.”
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Open defiance vs. Everyday resistance
```
Open:
-Openly challenges property relations.
• Seeks formal, de jure gains.
• Examples = tax riot, labor strike, open
insult.
```
Everday:
Does not openly challenge property relations. Seeks tacit, de facto gains.
Examples = evasion/concealment, shirking, slowdowns, spoilage, gossip, nicknames, character assassination
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Scott example of Poaching
Subsistence activity (hunting) becomes illegal when landed elite restrict access to peasantry.
• As a crime = “shift in the law of property relations.”
• Attempt to re-assert claim on traditional resource.
• Enforcement made difficult by widespread compliance with poachers.
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Scott example of Peasant Tax Resistance
* Purpose: to defeat or minimize direct appropriation.
* Context: Islamic tithe (1/10 of harvest) in Malaysia.
* From local to regional collection (1960s) with increasing surveillance to force compliance.
* Refuse to register acreage with tithe agent. Underreport acreage and/or grain yield. Deliver less grain than what one reported. Deliver poorest quality grain or adulterate it with water, stones, etc. (increase weight).
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Scott example of desertion
Conscripts from poor farming families. Resentment that wealthy families escape conscription. Economic needs of family during crisis times. Little stake in defending slavery (didn’t own them).
• Massive desertions, sustained by consensus, prevent authorities from stopping it. Who to target? No open rebellion; not organized or coordinated by anyone.
• Result: thousands of small, self-serving acts deprived socioeconomic elite of manpower needed to fight the war.
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Social control formally and informally
Formal:
• Expressed through law as rules and regulations against deviant behavior.
• Conducted by governments and organizations using law enforcement and other
sanctions such as fines and imprisonment.
• Usually used by governments or other organizations that hold power and authority
• Explicit “contract”: government and people.
Informal:
• Expressed through custom and norms using informal sanctions such as criticism, disapproval, guilt, shaming, discrimination, etc.
• Exercised without explicitly stating rules.
• Includes moral injunctions, gossip & ostracism, satire, education/propaganda, shaming/humiliating.
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satire
• Publicly ridiculing powerful or influential people and organizations. Intended effect: erode status.
its a mean of informal social control
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ostracism
exclusion from social groups or clubs
means of informal social control
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Education (Propaganda) Campaigns
• Designed to change peoples’ behaviors. No formal means are used to enforce compliance. Shaming, humiliation, and fear tactics are common strategies.
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Henry on Schools as Institutions for enculturation
classrooms . . . express the values, preoccupations, and fears found in the culture as a whole
“Drilling” (rote learning) replaced by less rigid forms of teaching
Function of education is not to foster creativity, but to instill conformity (i.e., social control!)
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Henry on Classroom Management
Lessons learned in name of “classroom management” instill conformity outside of the classroom.
Classroom management thus has tremendous impact on children’s enculturation (more than parents?)
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Say “Cheese” (Shearing and Stenning)
Mechanisms for social control built into park.
“Private corporate policing.”
“Control strategies are embedded in both environmental features and structural relations.”
Control becomes consensual.
Inducing coercion by “depriving visitors of a resource they value.”
**Argument: “people today are seduced to conform by the pleasures of consuming the goods that corporate
power has to offer.”
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Biometrics
recognizing humans on a basis of traits (both physical and behavioral)
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Birth of Biometric Security (Maguire)
Agenda:
Biosecurity research dominated by technical fields (e.g., encryption). Move beyond debates on efficacy of technology by focusing on historical and cultural dimensions of biometrics. Explore genealogy of biometric security to show it as “an invisible chain that held past populations in strikingly contemporary ways.” What are the social ramifications of widely deploying such technologies?
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Biometric Security
record a characteristic (like a mugshot or a fingerprint) and enter it into a database. disseminating the database creates a method for tracking individuals (what maguire studied)
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Governmentality
according to foucault, governmentality is: Methods used by governments to produce citizens who act in accordance with government policies or objectives. The ideologies and techniques through which subjects are governed.
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Panopticism (Foucault?)
He who is subjected to a field of visibility, and who knows it, assumes responsibility for the constraints of power; he makes them play spontaneously upon himself; he inscribes in himself the power relation in which he simultaneously plays both roles; he becomes the principle of his own subjection.
With biometrics and biosecurity the body becomes both a target and instrument of control.
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Herschel in the development of biometrics
pioneered us of finger and hand prints as identity markers in colonial India for purpose of guaranteeing contractual obligations.
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Galton in the development of Biometrics
Search for heritable characteristics of race through anthropometrics. Received Herschel’s notes on subject of fingerprints. Understood potential for fingerprints to be used as identifiers.
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Bertillon in the development of biometrics
Concern in Paris about urban population and crime. Photographed, finger-printed and collected other data on criminals. Filed data so details of individuals could be easily retrieved. Disseminated files so individuals could be tracked.
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Biometrics and Utopian Vision
Every human being should be partially signalised...It would then be possible to find any persona at once whenever desired, whether for its own good or that of society at large, in whatever place he might be and however he might alter his appearance or name.
Crime would thus be rooted out, elections purified, immigration laws effectively enforced . . .
(Bertillon)
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Contemporary Applications of Biometrics
Movement enhanced for some (e.g., quick screening at airports) and obstructed for others (e.g., “no fly list”).
UK “Smart Border”: Facilitate rapid movement for some; deter, detect and remove others.
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Means of Production:
Land, labor, technology, and capital—major productive resources.
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Mode of Production:
Way of organizing production—a set of social relations through which labor is deployed to
wrest energy from nature by means of tools, skills, and knowledge.
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Adaptive Strategies:
Describes a society’s main system of economic production (includes means/mode of
production).
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Main q's in economic anthropology
How are production, distribution, and consumption organized in different societies?
What motivates people in different societies to produce, distribute or exchange, and consume?
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Foraging (Hunter-Gatherers)
Adaptive strategy for most of human history.
| Remained until recently in areas where food production is difficult (e.g., northern Canada, Kalahari Desert).
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Correlates of Foraging:
Band-organized society. High mobility. Egalitarian (minimal social stratification). Social
distinctions based on age. Men hunt; women gather.
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The Original Affluent Society (Sahlins)
decreasing stereotype of foragers
showing that they do in fact have culture, and confidence in ability to continue to forage etc.
Sahlins was a huge deal in economic anthro
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Prior to Sahlins (in his paper on foraging) thoughts on foragers included ideas such as:
they live Nasty, Short, and Brutish Lives?
“Subsistence” characterized as brink of starvation existence.
“Limited leisure”, “incessant quest for food”, “meager resources”.
Relegated to nature, not culture, foragers are animals themselves
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Sahlins on Foragers fulfilling wants and desires
Scarcity is a “relationship between means and ends.”
How does one satisfy “wants”? By producing a lot? By desiring little?
foragers just desire little
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Sahlins on Why [foragers are] content with so little?
Is it because they spend so much time hunting and foraging that no time remains for the provision of other comforts?
Is it because goods are a burden in a mobile community (“mobility and property are in contradiction”)?
Is it because they simply have few desires?
Last 2 reasons says Sahlins
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Sahlins: Why foragers eat rapidly through food supplies?
Lack of foresight to cache supplies for future time?
Driven by hunger to gorge themselves?
Or, because they are confident of their ability to continually procure food?
Last 1 says sahlins
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Sahlins on Law of diminishing return
Why make substantial houses if you will soon abandon them? Why collect goods and materials when it is a burden to transport them to next camp?
Mobility – not productivity – influences material acquisitions.
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Horticulture (“Shifting Cultivation”)
No intensive usage of any means (factors) of production (land, labor, capital, or machinery).
Simple technology. “Slash & Burn” with long fallows (plots that were used are left unsown for a very long time before returned to).
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Agriculture
More labor intensive than horticulture. Irrigation. Terracing. Land used intensively and continuously. Use of domesticated animals (plow, fertilizer).
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From Horticulture to Agriculture
New Labor Requirements: Fertilizing, Terracing, Plowing, Irrigating, Weeding
Overall Effects: Work more hours, decreasing marginal returns (doubling work time does not double crop yield!)
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Food Production and Population
People generally look for the least labor intensive solution.
Foraging less labor intensive than horticulture; horticulture less labor intensive than agriculture.
Correlation between population density and adaptive strategy.
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Correlates between type of production, population density and labor intensity
In order from the highest labor intensity and the highest population density to the lowest, we see
```
multicropping
annual cropping
short fallow
bush fallow
forest fallow
```
aka where pop density is highest, we see the choice to multicrop (which has the highest labor intensity) and so on (down the list)
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Pastoralism
Dependence on herds of domesticated animals.
Heavy reliance on animal products for food (dairy, meat, blood).
Diet supplemented by hunting, fishing, foraging, and trading (inter-dependence w/agriculturalists).
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Nomadism:
sect of pastoralism in which there is Movement of entire group throughout the year (no permanent settlements).
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Transhumance:
sect of pastoralism in which part of group moves with herd, part stays in village (agro-pastoral subsistence strategy).
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carrying capacity
what are the environmental limits?
the number of individuals of a given species an ecosystem can support based on NATURAL constraints
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Ehrlich on Population
wrote the population bomb
influenced by Malthus
planted idea that there is overpopulation
Talks about Delhi
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question of whether a particular area is overpopulated
highly dependent on poverty
ex-Times Square is densely populated but there is wealth.
also depends on culture
ex cities in developing nations may be overwhelmed by lots of people esp if from vast open spaces
tldr: Need to separate the feel of overpopulation and poverty and the discomfort of alien cultures with actual indications of “over” population.
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Malthus
Intellectual and one generation beyond the enlightenment
Math major, hoped to become a preacher
1788-1793...living at home for an extended period of socializing, "indulg[ing] his pasttimes of walking, riding,
hunting, and shooting" (Stapleton 1986:22)
Job as country preacher at Oakwood Chapel, England
“The sons and daughters of peasants will not be found such rosy cherubs in real life as they are described to be in romances...a circumstance which can only be attributed to a want either of proper or of sufficient nourishment.” (Malthus 1798)
Population in Oakwood: 1788-1798 (Malthus’ preaching years) 16 baptisms but only 5 burials
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Malthus principle of population
food suppoly determines pop growth: natural and inevitable
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Malthusian Policy
Population outstripping food production is part of nature
No permanent solutions to the laws of nature; can’t keep
positive checks from befalling “lowest orders”
feeding the hungry will only increase starvation in the
future (“Utterly Dismal Theorem”)
Positive checks are inevitable – early death
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Malthusian Results (from policy)
Irish “Potato Famine” 1843-50
Pop: 8 million. Starved: 1 million. Emigrated: 1 million
Famine as “a direct stroke of an all-wise and all-merciful Providence”
Charles Trevelyan, director of relief (and Malthus’s student)
1846 alone: 500,000 hogs exported
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Great Famine of Madras
1876-78
Up to 5.5 million starved
Half of them Dalit (Untouchable)
Lord Lytton: “Indian population tends to grow faster than the food it produces.”
Finance Minister said attempts to mitigate famine and sanitation only “enhance evils resulting from
overpopulation”
India exported a record 358,000 tons of wheat to UK in 1877-78
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Oakwood, Malthus and Poor Laws and Parishes
Poor laws and Enclosure
Malthus was an enemy of the Poor Laws (early form of public welfare) until the end of his days
Close Parishes: A few landlords controlling who can own what and where
Open Parish: Anyone can own/rent, but they must travel to find work
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Non-Malthusian Demography
Food supply IS NOT the main determinant of population growth
Food production increased by processes other than putting more land under the plow and more people behind
the plow.
Intensification (internal change in production; Boserup). Industrialization (external energy).
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Boserup vs. Malthus
Malthus: Food production determines population
Boserup: Population determines food production
Intensification: Shortening the fallow period, diminishing returns from labor
Extensification: Lengthening the fallow period, increasing returns from labor
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Boserup and Intensification vs Extensification
Intensification: Shortening the fallow period, diminishing returns from labor
Extensification: Lengthening the fallow period, increasing returns from labor
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why is malthus still so influential
even though his theories don't hold up, the remain influential because of the "feel" factor--feels like overpop etc.
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Eating Christmas in the Kalahari (Lee) !Kung Bushmen Subsistence Strategy
foraging (hunting & gathering). Low population density living in small bands. Egalitarian society (little social stratification). Trade relations with herders (source of Lee’s ox).
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Lee Reciprocity of !Kung Bushmen
Anthropologist studying subsistence economy (hunting and gathering). Did not want to “taint” data by providing food. But wanted to reciprocate: gift of “huge” ox to say “thank you”
190
Hunter Gatherer reciproctiy with !Kung Bushmen
Meat distribution is Part of hunter-gatherer reciprocity. All get equal share. Can lead to fights (e.g., Christmas ox distributed among feuding groups).
191
What happens when Lee gives Ox to !Kung Bushmen
they criticize it because they are trying to maintain humility and egalitarianism--dont want to make anyone arrogant because that would lead to stratification
Anthropologist in position of relative power (sole source of tobacco). Cultural Template: belittle the hunter’s results. Arrogance is dangerous in an egalitarian society. “We cool his heart and make him gentle.”
Agency: Criticizing ox = opportunity to humble Lee’s potential arrogance attained by giving.
Using culture to diminish social hierarchy.
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Marcell Mauss
French Sociologist, student of Emile Durkheim. The Gift (1925) – an important theoretical exploration of reciprocity and exchange.
193
The Gift by Marcell Mauss
Gift giving entails social and political obligations. Gift object inescapably tied to the giver.
Giving creates a social bond between individuals and an obligation to reciprocate.
Giving = creating a social relationship. Receiving = acknowledging the social relationship (refuse gift = reject
social bond). Reciprocating = maintaining the social relationship.
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reciprocity
Exchange between people of similar social standing who have close personal ties (through kinship, marriage, friendship). How closely related are the exchanging parties? How quickly and unselfishly are gifts reciprocated?
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Generalized Reciprocity
Giving something to another person without the expectation of an immediate return. No record keeping, parties assume that exchanges would balance out in the long run. Exchanges = expression of personal relationship.
high trust
low social distance (mother-daughter)
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Balanced Reciprocity
Giving entails expectation that something of equal value will be returned (immediate or delayed). Social relations strained if gift not reciprocated.
medium trust
medium social distance
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Negative Reciprocity
Attempt to get something of greater value than what you give through barter or other means of exchange. May involve deceit, coercion, striking a “hard bargain."
lower trust
greater social distance (someone you don't know that well eg the person you consistently buy fruit from in a market)
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Conspicuous Consumption
Intent to impress others by accumulating money and material goods.
consumers who buy expensive items to display wealth and income
Is there a connection between conspicuous giving and prestige in our society?
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Harris Cultural Materialism
the super-structure (cognitive and ideological patterns or the culture) depends upon the
structure (the domestic economy and political economy)
which depends upon the
infrastructure (the natural and cultural elements fundamental to human adaptation and survival) or the mode and means of production
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Harris on Cultural Materialism and Social Evolution
he returned to this abandoned idea of social evolution by thinking of the simple societies as less socially evolved
simple societies tend to be egailitarian and have lots of aspects of balanced reciprocity
slightly more socially evolved societies tend to have some stratification based on presige and have aspects of redistribution in their culture
complex societies have class hierarchy and tend to be based on accumulation is the basis of presitge
201
Harris on the Kwakiutl Potlatch and conspicuous redist
Kwakiutl leader collects food stocks, redistributes to people in own and other communities.
202
Thorstein Veblen on the Potlatch
(economist): Economically irrational drive for prestige. In some societies people value prestige over well-being.
203
Andrew vayda on the potlatch
ecological anthropologist): Cultural adaptation to alternating periods of local abundance and shortage.
204
Ruth Benedict on the potlatch
(anthropologist): Potlatch displayed “megalomania” of the chiefs. Object: to “show oneself superior to one’s rivals.”
205
Divergent views on the potlatch Benedict vs Harris
Ruth Benedict: The Kwakiutl economic system was bent to the service of status rivalry.
Marvin Harris: Kwakiutl status rivalry was bent to the service of the economic system.
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Potlatch Functions: Harris’ Perspective
To ensure surplus production, economic cooperation, and the distribution of wealth in a non-centralized political system.
Leader’s craving for status spurs others to work harder and produce more than required for subsistence level, brings several villages together in economic exchange network, redistributes food through feasts.
207
Cultural Reproduction Theory
Schools socialize minority children into dominant ideology (e.g., social norms, vernacular) of majority (i.e., white America).
Resistance to assimilation leads to economic failure (poverty, crime, drug abuse). Economic success contingent upon rejecting ethnic identity and cultural dignity.
208
Bourgois on Cultural Reproduction Theory
does not agree with it
believes that inner-city street culture
(Rebellious practices opposed to mainstream society. Violence, substance abuse, anger. Personal search for dignity. Rejection of racism and marginalization. Models of masculinity premised on earning “respect”.) is all due to a way to attain american dream
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“Irrational” Cultural Logic of Crack in Spanish Harlem (Bourgois)
Pursuing the American Dream: “Rugged individualists”, “private entrepreneurs” seeking a “piece of the pie.”
Underground economy as most available route to upward mobility.
Choosing dignity and autonomy over humiliation and dependence on others
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Reason for culture of terror in Spanish Harlem (Bourgois)
“High powered tool for domination and a principle medium for political practice.” (Taussig)
Violence as a means to maintain credibility, prevent rip-offs. Upward mobility requires regular displays of violence. Violence as “public relations”, “advertising”, “rapport building”. Ruthlessness = security.
