Exam 1 (36% of Grade;His notes through 6.1) Flashcards
anthropology
the exploration of human diversity in time and space
study of the whole of the human condition
biology, society, language and culture
sub-fields of anthropology
physicla/biological, archaeology, linguistic anthropology, sociocultural anthropology
physical/biological anthropology
The study of human and primate evolution and physiological adaptation over space and time.
archaeology
The study of past societies by uncovering and investigating the remains they left behind
Linguistic Anthropology
the study of language in its social and cultural context
(Socio)Cultural Anthropology
The holistic study of human societies, both past and present, with a specific focus
on culture.
how can we explain human differences
several ways but early theorists primarily focussed on theories of: degenerationism progrerssivism/unilineal evolution diffusion heliocentric diffusion culture circles
Degenerationism:
we were all once civilized, but after dispersing (Tower of Babel incident) some degenerated while others remained civilized.
Progressivism:
human history is characterized by advances from primitive to civilized. Differences emerge from different experiences.
also called unilineal evolution
Diffusion:
Cultural traits originate in one area and then spread to other areas.
Heliocentric Diffusion:
All cultural traits originate from a single source (e.g., ancient Egypt).
Culture Circles:
Cultural traits originated at multiple sources.
What was Lamarck’s theory on why there is human difference?
Geographic or climate changes force life forms to adapt
enivronmental determinism
What was Darwin’s theory on why there is human difference?
Concept of natural selection. Some variations more beneficial for survival and reproduction than others (long-term adaptation).
What was Herbert Spencer’s theory on why there is human difference?
Human societies analogous to biological organisms. Identify functions of “organs” in maintaining society.
Assumptions and steps in the comparative method
Assumption 1: there is a psychic unity of mankind (humans everywhere think alike)
Assumption 2: all societies undergo
parallel but independent evolutionary stages.
Step 1: Place all societies on a scale from “primitive” to civilized”.
Step 2: Analyze “living fossils” (the so-called
primitive societies) as evidence of previous evolutionary stages.
Step 3: Compare institutions (e.g. political
systems, kinship, religion) to understand evolutionary trajectory from primitive to civilized
Tylor perspective on anthro
a focus on religion
from most primitive to least primitive
animism–>polytheism–> monotheism
Lewis Henry Morgan perpective and definitions
focussed on social institutions
savagery–> barbarism–>civilization
said there were 2 evolutions of governement
societas (based on kinship): Gens (patrilineal clan) as basis of organization. Complexity evolves thru descent
group of related clans, tribes, and confederacy of tribes.
civitas (based on property): Territory as basis of organization. Complexity evolves thru
county/province (collection of wards), nation (collection of counties)
social darwinism
Some societies are more fit than others.
Justification for European powers to dominate other societies (a moral imperative).
Social Darwinism and Racial Theories
Racial groups classified from primitive to civilized.
Some races deemed inferior to others (“biological determinism”).
Justification for social stratification.
The Methods of Ethnology (Franz Boas)
Physicist turned geographer (Berlin)
interest in studying culture.
developped anthropology as a methodologically rigorous field of inquiry. Proponent of fieldwork. Rejection of arm-chair approaches.
Critiqued grand theories on race, social evolution, and cultural determinism.
Boas’ Critique of Unilineal Social Evolution
Unsubstantiated Hypothesis: Historical changes in cultural life follow definite laws which apply to every society.
Cultural similarities can arise through diffusion, adaptation to similar environments, and/or historical accident.
Boas’ Critique of Diffusionism
Unsubstantiated Hypothesis: historical changes in cultural life are the result of contact between more and less “civilized” peoples.
Must assume migration/contact over enormous geographical areas (e.g., Egypt and Mexico 2,500 years ago).
Ignores possibility of independent invention.
Boas’ Historical Particularism
Cultures can only be understood with reference to their particular historical developments.
no general theories (e.g., evolution, diffusion) can explain processes of culture change.
Each culture is unique and must be studied in terms of its uniqueness (precursor to cultural relativism)
Racial Theories and Anthropometrics
Cranial dimensions reflect racial differences.
Assumption that such traits are biologically determined, hence, races are “fixed” categories.
Assumed connections between “race” and intelligence, aptitude, etc.
Boas’ Rejection of Racial Theories
1908 Study: Cranial dimensions in immigrants and their kids.
Evidence: Immigrant kids had different skull shapes than parents—result of different diets, habits, environment,
etc. Therefore, cranial morphology is not an immutable marker of “race”; it can vary through time and according to environment.
Anthropology Today
Anthropology now separates sub-disiplines (used to combine)
E.g., Boas challenged a cultural issue (racism) using tools of physical anthropology (anthropometry).
Nowadays the sub-disciplines operate more or less independent from each other.
An Exception: Biocultural approaches study relationship between culture and human biology.
Adaptation: The processes by which organisms cope with environmental stresses. Can have biological and/or cultural dimensions.
What do Anthropologists Produce?
Ethnography
Ethnology
Ethnography
A descriptive account of a particular community, society, or culture. Based on long-term, first-hand fieldwork. “
Old School” Approach: Highly descriptive and holistic account of a particular society at one point in time.
Contemporary Approach: “Problem Oriented” research. Less holistic and more focused on single issue. Emphasis on connections with world system.
Ethnology
Examines, analyzes, and compares the results of ethnographies—the data gathered in different societies.
Goal is to make generalizations about society and culture through detailed comparisons (grand theories).
Anthropology as a humanities discipline
Humanities Approach
Provide readers with an empathic understanding of another society.
Reduce the perception of cultural differences between “us” and “them”.
Anthro as a social science discipline
Provide plausible and reliable explanations of social processes.
Provide data and perspectives that have tangible applications.
Kluckhohn Queer Customs
Why do people differ?
Destined by God or fate to different habits? Because of climate differences? Because of biological differences?
“because they were brought up that way.”
Society vs Culture
Society: group of people who interact more with each other than with others.
Culture: Distinctive ways of life of such a group of people.
Kluckhohn on Culture
Every human being is imbued with culture (“to be human is to be cultured”).
“The total life way of a people, the social legacy the individual acquires from his group.”
A way of thinking, feeling, and believing acquired by the individual as a member of a group.
Culture “constitutes a kind of blueprint for all of life’s activities.”
KOTTAK def of culture
Traditions and customs that are transmitted through learning and that influence behaviors and beliefs.
Culture is treated as an environment that influences and is influenced by human action.
Culture is not static. It is always changing.
Culture as a symbol
Symbol: Something verbal or non-verbal, within a particular language or culture, that comes to stand for
something else.
Cultural learning depends on symbols (signs that have no necessary or natural connection to the things they
stand for or signify).
Enculturation:
The social process by which culture is learned and transmitted (within generations, across
generations, or across societies).
Direct Transmission and Transmission through Observation
Margaret Mead & Gregory Bateson on enculturation
Studied how kids are raised in other societies. Early theoretical insights on enculturation through cross-cultural
comparison.
Gender and Enculturation
How do boys and girls learn what constitutes proper behavior for their respective genders?
How is gendered behavior instilled through play?
Culture as integrated
if one part changes the other parts change as well
Agency and Practice as a means of cultural change
Incremental change over time due to the cumulative actions in of individuals within a society
culture and the individual
culture regulates our lives – constant pressure to follow certain behaviors.
Cultural rules are subject to interpretation,
Culture influences, but does not determine, the behaviors of individuals;
most people do not blindly follow cultural norms and rules.
Culture is used actively and creatively by individuals. Therefore, culture is not static but is constantly changing.
Agency:
“the actions that individuals take, both alone and in groups, in forming and transforming cultural identities.” (Kottak) Or, “The capacity of human beings to affect their own life chances and those of others and to play a role in the formation of the social realities in which they participate.”
Practice Theory
Cultural rules are subject to interpretation, manipulation, and contestation.
Individuals within every society have different motives and intentions, degrees of power and influence (agency).
Diffusion and Acculturation:
Concepts to explain cultural exchanges between societies.
universals
generalities
particularities
Universals: some traits are common to all humans (language, use of symbols, religious beliefs, concept of family).
Generalities: some traits are widespread but not universal (nuclear family, monotheism).
Particularities: some traits are confined to a single place, culture, or society.
Diffusion
Borrowing between cultures either directly or through intermediaries.
Acculturation
The exchange of cultural features (e.g., language, clothing) that results when groups come into continuous firsthand contact; the original cultural patterns of either or both groups may be altered, but the groups remain distinct.
Reconfigurations
Cultures contain complex arrays of beliefs, symbols, practices, traditions, etc.
Any cultural trait that is borrowed will be adapted and modified to fit the new context.
What looks similar from the outside can have very different meanings and associations.
Minor on the body rituals of the Nacirema
purpose was to: Document unusual magical beliefs and practices of poorly understood group with a highly developed market economy. Focus of ritual activity is the body.
the belief system of the people was that the body is ugly with a tendency to debilitate and decay so ritualistic behaviors done to combat this
Barland on “The Gym”
the gym is an arena where the ‘modern body’ takes shape
The study: participant observation at bodybuilding gyms and public competition
- in-depth interviews
- key informants such as top ranked body builder in gym
acceptance contingent on being active partner in the training, dieting, and doping regime.
- Climbing social hierarchy contingent on commitment, knowledge acquisition, and participation in competitions.
- Self-discipline as core value: success contingent on balancing training, resting, dieting, and hormone intake.
Barland on Training Dieting and Doping in ‘The Gym’
Training: Systematic to develop all muscle groups. Expression of character, will, and self-discipline.
Dieting: Strategic, thorough planning. Dual intent to build muscle and reduce fat during “defining” period.
Doping: Enhancement rather than a substitute for training. Perceived as positive application of scientific
knowledge (disregarding health consequences).
Insights and conclusion on Barland’s study in “the Gym”
Insights
- Constructing self-identity through methodical, meticulous self-discipline of the body.
- Individualistic pursuit (self-identity) done as member of a tight-knit community (sharing of knowledge, techniques, and results).
You are How you Eat- Cooper article
“Food habits communicate symbolic messages.”Hierarchy;Inclusion/Exclusion(Commensality)
How you eat conveys messages about your gender, age, social status, etc.
Symbolic Gestures: Indicate interest by accepting rice bowl with both hands, bring bowl to mouth while eating. Express deference by allowing elders to eat first, offer to others before serving self, share common foods.
“…the degree to which a Chinese practices the rules of etiquette marks his class position …”
the aims of ethnology-Boas
he critiaues accounts of of ther people that were used to generate early theories about human differences
devels concept of ethnocentrism
says that close study of other societies reveals that all groups have: definite religious ideas and traditions, make inventions, have customary laws that govern behavior
ethnocentrism
The tendency to view one’s own culture as superior.
The tendency to apply one’s own cultural values in judging the behavior and beliefs of people in other cultures.
Ethnocentrism is an obstacle to cross-cultural understanding.
Ethnography and culture–Spradley
Reject “Naïve Realism”
The idea that all people define the world of objects, events, and concepts the same way.
Does “love” have the same meaning in all societies?
Does “death” have the same meaning in all societies?
-Understand three aspects of human experience:
What people do (cultural behavior).
What people know (cultural knowledge). Things people make and use (cultural artifacts).
For Spradley culture = cultural knowledge. “the acquired knowledge [thru enculturation] people use to interpret experience and generate behavior.”
Naive realism
ethnocentrism without value judgement
Cultural knowledge that is explicit
Cultural knowledge that people can talk about or communicate with ease.
e.g., items such as clothing, actions such as playing, emotional states such as sadness.
Tacit (implied, understood) Culture
Cultural knowledge that people lack words for or that lies outside our explicit awareness.
e.g., speaking distances, social space.
to best understand another culture:
Reject naïve realism (belief that meanings of concepts are the same everywhere).
Reject ethnocentrism
Adopt a stance of methodological cultural relativism (study how people in that culture explain and ascribe significance to their own beliefs and behaviors)
cultural relativism
Behavior in one culture should not be judged by the standards of another culture.
Dilemma:
-should we accept all cultural practices on grounds that we should not judge others according to own standards?
-Does cultural relativism compromise one’s ability to make moral judgments?
Gardening Tips (Cronk)
How to respond to the relativist position, “It’s their culture, who are we to judge it?”
BUT Do cultural explanations = moral justifications?
Biological Analogy from Cronk on Cultural Relativism
Explanations for infanticide: increases “fitness” of male perpetrator”, increases “parental investment” of father
Naturalistic Fallacy: If something is “natural” then it must somehow be “good”.
-Biological explanation is not a moral justification
Cronk on the Culturalistic Fallacy
The task of ethnography is to explain behavior (“this is what it is”).
The task is not to justify behavior in moral terms (“this is what it ought to be”).
Cultural explanation IS NOT moral justification.
Cronk on What type of cultural relativism we should use
Moral Relativism: ethical standards and morality are culturally based and therefore subject to a person’s individual choice.
- moral and ethical rules of all cultures deserve equal respect
- We should refrain from passing moral judgment on cultures other than our own.
Methodological Relativism: “To understand another culture fully, you must try to see how the people in that culture see things.”
Cultural explanation IS NOT moral justification
tldr we should do methodological relativism and not morally justify all acts of other cultures
morale shouldn’t play a role
anthropologist-“subject” relationship
-integrated in the communities they study
-Fictive kinship relationships
Good data contingent on rapport;
rapport contingent on acceptance.
-must remain somewhat detached in order to retain objectivity
Ethnographic research always involves ___ and sometimes involves____
Always:
-Direct, firsthand observation of behavior
-Conversation with varying degrees of formality
-Detailed work with key consultants about particular areas of community life.
-Nuanced relationships with research subjects and gatekeepers.
Sometimes:
-Longitudinal research
-Team research—coordinated research by multiple scholars.
-Multi-sited research—studying various sites and systems in which people participate.
Fieldwork and the Empirical Tradition (Evans-Pritchard 1)
big deal in anthro–Research focus on kinship as a basis for political organization.
Fieldwork in Africa during height of British colonialism.
He noted
-contrasting views of the primitive man (as both animalistic and gentle)
-the shifting portrayals in studying ‘the other’
(from exploration to colonialism)
-a scholarly shift (from historians and philosophers who didn’t make first hand obs–> natural sciences who make obs and hypotheses and test)
-previous methods included armchair scholars as well as early fieldworkers who didn’t know natural language and didn’t fully immerse selves
-notes malinowskis new standard:
-spend sufficient time “in the field” (one year minimum, preferably two)
-live among subjects of study
communicate in their language
study entire culture and social life
Malinowski
established anthropologist 1884-1942
- economic anthro
- established participant observation as key method
- problems he saw were that: westerners were ignant of natice native culture;ethnocentric; biased and didn’t know the lang
- he says you need foundations to be a good ethnographer
how Malinowski developed good relationships with the Melanesians
Acquire “the feeling” for proper behavior. Establish trust and rapport. Become part of the landscape (less reflexivity). Develop empathic understanding of native life. Look for, and document, order and structure where others see disorder and chaos.
-kula ring–there was a ceremonial gift exchange network; possessing items enhances individual’s status
Malinowski’s impact
Trobriand Islands 1914-1918 (longer fieldwork that any predecessor). First to conduct research using local language. First to conduct research while living in the community under study. London School of Economics: trained a generation of anthropologists (e.g. Evans-Pritchard) and instilled new methodological rigor.
Evans Pritchard research in the Colonial Era in Sudan–Nuer
-British conquest of Sudan. Nuer unknown and antagonistic. Govt. commissions
study by anthropologist.
Goal: to reveal Nuer system of governance so they can be better controlled.
Research Obstacles: Servants didn’t wanna work among former enemies. Communication
(lacked interpreter; had to learn difficult language). Treated with suspicion (British colonial rep.).
Major Finding:
-genealogical method revealed kinship basis of Nuer political organization.
Geertz on Balinese Cockfight
Major proponent of Interpretive Anthropology. Goals: to demonstrate how seemingly irrational institutions and practices actually have a cultural logic; to provide reader with an “empathic understanding” of
another society
Acceptance: Dramatic event allowed Geertz to establish rapport. Rapport = relation, especially one that is harmonious or sympathetic.
Impact of Geertz’s Narrative: Self-reflexive style of ethnographic writing was uncommon at the time.
Henceforth, the “ethnographic vignette” becomes standard formula for starting an ethnographic account.
participant observation
-live in community
-Learn the local vernacular.
-Learn how to behave in an appropriate manner.
-Gather data through observation, conversation, etc.
-its not used as sole method for data and answering research q
- it is used for gaining a basic
understanding of the society being studied so that the researcher knows what types of questions to ask, and how to ask them
advantages of long-term fieldwork
- cultivate social relationships (lknow more people and increase rapport)
- Seasonal Perspective-Understanding annual cycle is crucial for studying a range of issues
- can see change
- on first visit you collect benchmark data–allows you to see change
triangulation
allows you to understand more fully
- textual data
- participant observation
- economic data
Johnson on “the active participant observer”
need to consider: Freedom of social movement. Type of informant relations. Type of information that can be accessed. Information reliability. Degree of power and autonomy associated with a particular role.
Participant observation involves strategic choices to occupy specific social roles. Good choices facilitate rapport, neutrality, access to information, data reliability, etc. Bad choices compromise validity of a study.
Sterk on “Fieldwork on Prostitution”
- didn’t “go native” to study their lives–not necessary and not safe
- develloped rapport though showing desire to understand and ‘passing test’ to show that she is trustworthy
- gains empathic understanding by hanging out with and interviewing prostitutes
- she also gave back with services and goods
Gmelch on Studying Baseball
maneuvered thought the media relations director and fit in by learning baseball terms and key players
- played role of researcher/reporter
- he had an insider’s perspective from previous experience (empathic understanding). Yet analytical detachment.
Osburg on “meeting the Godfather”
studied gender and msculininty in elite male network
-did fieldwork in places where elite males socialize and solidify relationships
studying up
usually anthropologists study down into groups more socially marginalized then they are–How can anthropologists study processes of economic and political domination? How can
anthropologists study elites?
accessing the elite–issues
Gatekeepers: livelihood on the line if the wrong person gets through.
Time: elites are busy, reluctant to devote adequate time to researcher.
Secrecy: more disincentives than incentives for elite to allow outsider into the inner sanctum.
