Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
Research
A
An attempt to discover something
2
Q
Scientific Research
A
A process of asking question(s) & then initiating a systematic process to obtain valid answers to that question
Organized, objective, controlled, qualitative/quantitative empirical analysis of one or more variables
3
Q
Epistemology
A
“How we know something” o Tenacity • True cuz always been true o Intuition • True cuz it’s “self-evident”/”stands to reason” o Authority • Trusted source says it is true o Science • “truth” found only through series of objective analysis (self-correction)
4
Q
Chars of scientific Method
• Public
A
o Freely available info
• Replication→Correction & verification
5
Q
Chars of scientific Method
• Objective
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o Explicit rules & procedures o Facts (apart from value judgments)
6
Q
Chars of scientific Method
• Empirical (experienced)
A
o Knowable & measurable nature
o Rejecting metaphysical & nonsensical explanations of events
o Does NOT mean to avoid abstract concepts
7
Q
Chars of scientific Method
• Conceptual Definition
A
o Defines a word by substituting other words or concepts (Dictionary)
8
Q
Chars of scientific Method
• Operational Definition
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o Specifies procedures that allow one to experience/measure a concept
9
Q
Chars of scientific Method
• Systematic & Cumulative
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o Step by step procedure
o Only partial knowledge
10
Q
Chars of scientific Method
• Predictive
A
o Theory
11
Q
Goal of Communication Research
A
- Major Goal: testing & developing theory
* Goal of Communication theory: helping us organize & understand communication phenomena
12
Q
Components of Theory
A
• Good Theory
o Logical, well reasoned, with sound structure
• Written in abstract level
o General descriptions of human mind to behavior
13
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Requirements of Theory
• Falsifiable (testable)
A
o Cant test, not useful
o Ex: metaphysics
o Use method to test
14
Q
Requirements of Theory
• Tentative (probability)
A
o No perfect theory
o Probable
o Base explanation
o What is best explanation?
15
Q
Functions of Theory
• Description
A
o Theory clearly tells us about some phenomena
16
Q
Functions of Theory
• Explanation
A
o How essential components work
o Answer for ‘why’
17
Q
Functions of Theory
• Prediction
A
o Expectation, heuristic view
o Based on casual relationship among variable
18
Q
Functions of Theory
• Control
A
o Practicality (applied research) o Medical research (theory to control disease)
19
Q
Induction
A
• Data (observations) → theory (conclusion)
20
Q
Deduction
A
• Theory (conclusion) → Data (observations)
21
Q
Research Problems
A
• We do research cuz we are ignorant • Answer questions • Research Problem Question: Questions we expect to answer through research • 2 Chars o limits on relevant info o structure inquiry
22
Q
Good Research Questions/Hypotheses
A
• Must be within researcher’s capabilities
• Be narrow but not trivial
• Be stated unambiguously
• Include at least 2 variables
o What is the relationship between __ and __?
o The relationship between __ and __ will be…
• Be testable
• Be value-free
• Be grammatical
23
Q
Hypotheses
A
• Expectation about events based on generalizations of the assumed relationship between variables
• Direct declarative answers to the problem
• Working hypothesis
o Tentative hypothesis assumed for the purposes of initiating research and subject to change as research progresses
• More than an “educated guess”. Based on rationale
• Characteristics
o Based on theory
o A tool
• Test a theory and decide which method
o Help us take terms (construct, concepts) observable
• We can identify observable chars
• (e.g. intelligence → intelligence “test”
24
Q
• Material/research hypotheses
A
o Relationship does exist o Relationships • Correlation or causation o Directional hypotheses • The more e.g. aggressive, happier… o Nondirectional hypotheses: • We don’t know the direction, but something happens
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• Null hypothesis
o No relationship/difference
| o In research, we test null
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• Variables
o Characteristics of a certain object that varies (cf. constants)
o E.g., gender, income, ed., intelligence…
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o Independent
* Variables that predict outcomes
| * What researchers manipulate
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o Dependent
* Consequent, predicted results, outcomes
| * Results of manipulation
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4 Ethical Principles
1. Autonomy
- self determination & voluntary participation
2. Nonmaleficence
3. Beneficence
4. Justice
- equal treatment
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• Ontology
o People have free will. Ppl can make their own choices free from external constraints.
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• Axiology
o Knowledge is value free. We can get to know the world w/o any prejudice.
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• Epistemology
o We can find out the Truth, that is never changing and always true.
33
Quantitative
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• Structured approach, theory
• Boring, nothing new
• Examples
o Survey
o Experiment
o Content analysis
• Theory → Hypothesis → research & instrument design → data collection → Analysis & Interpretation → conclusion (& Theory Adjustment) → back to Theory
```
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Quantitative • History
o Newish
o Social science
o Positivism
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Quantitative • Epistemology
o Truth
| o Theory first
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Quantitative • Axiology
o Value free
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Quantitative • Ontology
o No free choice
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Quantitative • Focus
o Inferential
o Generalization
o Shallow, skim
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Quantitative • Reasoning
o Deductive
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Quantitative • Analysis Tool
o Numbers
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Quantitative • Research Goal
o Generalization
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Quantitative • Research Procedure
o Highly structured
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Quantitative • Theory
o Theory testing
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Quantitative • Measure
o Validity/reliability
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Quantitative • Interaction w/ Subjects
o Usually mediated
| o Experience distant
46
Qualitative
* Spontaneous, creative, explorative
| * Lost, find nothing
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Qualitative• History
o Old
o Liberal arts/humanity
o Social constructivism
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Qualitative• Epistemology
o Truth - relative
| o Research
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Qualitative• Axiology
o Value laden
50
Qualitative• Ontology
o Free choice
51
Qualitative• Focus
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o Descriptive
o Case study
o Depth
• Examples
o Field observation
o In depth interview
o Focus groups
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52
Qualitative• Reasoning
o Inductive
53
Qualitative• Analysis Tool
o Symbols
54
Qualitative• Research Goal
o Understanding
55
Qualitative• Research Procedure
o Relatively unstructured
56
Qualitative• Theory
o Theory building
57
Qualitative• Measure
o Trustworthiness
58
Qualitative• Interaction w/ Subjects
o Usually face-to-face
| o Experience near
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Qualitative• Strength
o Thick description
o Consideration on context
o Natural setting
o High flexibility
60
Issue, setting, or text →
observation/interview → data collection → Literature Review (theory) → analysis & interpretation → Understanding
61
Why interview?
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• Exploring
• Can be
• Ground work for other qualitative methods
• Sometimes, it’s better than survey
o Reducing refusal rate
o Recoding info missed in questionnaires
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62
o Structured interview
* Efficient
* Organized
* Answer research question
* Survey
63
o Unstructured interview
* Interesting new answers
| * May waste time
64
In-Depth Interview
* Requires a time commitment from a participant
* Usually one-on-one convo
* Comfort zone
* Key informants
* Fieldnotes
* IRB (anonymity & confidentiality)
65
In-Depth Interview• Advantages
o Wealth of detail
o More accurate responses to sensitive issues
o More control than observation-only
66
In-Depth Interview• Disadvantages
o Low generalizability (nonrandom sample)
o High cost & time
o Interviewer’s skills
o Sensitive to interviewer’s bias
67
Focus Group
• Unstructured discussion about research topic with 6-12 participants
• Moderator
• Group dynamics
• Purposes
o To gather preliminary info for a project
o To develop questionnaire items for survey
o To understand reasons behind a particular phenomenon
o To test preliminary ideas or plans
68
Focus Group:
| Procedure
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• Assembling the groups
o No random samples (targeted ppl)
o Usually more than two groups
• Preparing study mechanics
o Physical surroundings
• Preparing materials and questions
o Let participants know the topic before the session
o Structured questions, but tend to be flexible
• Conducting the session
o Encourage open discussion
o Avoid judgment
• Analyzing data & writing the report
```
69
During the Session
• Same as interview technique in in-depth interview
• How to handle participants
o Shy ppl must be encouraged to speak up
o Know-it-all ppl must be prevented from dominating the group
o Over-talkers must be encouraged to be brief
o Obnoxious ppl must be cut off & perhaps removed from the group
70
Focus Group: Advantages
* Flexibility
* Good to collect preliminary info
* Time & cost efficient
* Group dynamics
71
Focus Group: Disadvantages
* Reps: (Low external validity)
* Highly dependent on the moderator’s ability
* Discussion may be dominated by few ppl
72
Field Observation
• Studying groups by gaining membership or close relationships with them
Overt
•
•
• Observer Participant
•
o Covert
73
Field Observation: Procedure
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• Choosing the research site
• Gaining access
o Building rapport
• Sampling
o What behavioral episodes to sample
• Collecting data
o Field notes
o Qualitative interview
• Analysis & interpretation
• Exiting the field setting
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74
Field Observation: Advantages
• Natural settings (unobtrusive means) & context
• Questions of why, how, and in what way
o (c.f., Quantitative research: how much, how many, how often, to what extent)
• In some cases, the only available method
75
Field Observation: Disadvantages
* Reps (low external validity)
* Researchers’ preconceptions of results
* Problem of reactivity
76
Data & Analysis
• Rich description of the context
• Unique characteristics of the ppl, group, setting, communicative styles
• Unify certain characteristics with a specific theme (must be based on solid evidence & reasoning)
o Comparative assignment of incidents to categories
o Elaboration and refinement of categories
o Search for relationships and themes among categories
o Simplifying and integrating data into a coherent theoretical structure
77
Concepts
• An abstract idea formed by generalizing from particulars and summarizing related observations
• Concepts simplify
o Research process by combing particular characteristics, objects, or ppl into general categories
o Communication among those who have a shared understanding of them
78
• Conceptual Definitions
o Use other words to define a concept
| o Dictionary definitions (abstract)
79
• Operational Definitions (operationalization)
o Making concepts observable/measurable
o What is to be observed by specifying what researchers must do to make observations
o E.g., love → How can we know someone loves us?
80
• Internal validity
o Whether the study really investigate the proposed research question or hypothesis
o The question of control
o Precision of the relationship
81
• External validity
o How well the results of a study can be generalized across pop, settings and time
o Question of sampling
o Generalizability of the relationship
82
Measurement
• Assigning numeric values to variables
• Level of measurement
o Based on precision and hierarchy (or amt) of info
• Ex: Q. The ad that I watched is humorous
o Option 1
• Yes
• No
o Option 2
• Strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree
83
• Nominal Level
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o Categories (classification)
o 3 Chars
• At least 2 categories
• Exhaustive accounts for every possible option
• Mutually exclusive; no redundancy
o Categorical order does NOT matter
o Least amt of info
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84
• Ordinal Level
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o Same as nominal
• Categories in a rank order
• E.g., “greater than…, less than.., or equal to…”
o Ex: Q. How many hrs do you daily spend watching tv?
• 1 hr
• 2 hrs
• 3 hrs
• 4 hrs
• more than 4 hrs
o what if you watch less than 1 hr?
o nominal/ordinal
• meaningful mathematics line
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85
o Interval Level
• Have all chars of nominal & ordinal levels _ other chars
• Dist between categories is known (i.e., known entity)
• Consistent across categories
E.g., 1 2 3 4 5: categories
• Equal dist: 1
• Magnitude
• When we give a zero point, dist becomes to have meaning
• Arbitrary zero point: adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing
• Most data in comm science
86
o Ratio Level
• Interval Level + abs (real) zero pt
The absence of quantity being measured
E.g., absence of money, absence of behavior
E.g., 0 degrees in a thermometer
87
• Categorical data: nominal & ordinal (less complicated)
o Inventing categories
| o E.g. groups of ppl to adolescence, adults, etc.
88
• Continuous data: interval & ratio (complicated)
o Much more dynamic/informative/sophisticated/precise
| o E.g., grouping ppl based on age
89
Scale
• A composite measure of a variable
• Rating scales (I/R levels)
o More points → more differentiation
o Higher number → Higher degree
90
• Likert Scales
Strongly disagree(1)--Disagree(2)--Neutral(3)--Agree(4)--Strongly Agree(5)
91
• Semantic Differential Scales
o Bipolar adjectives
Biased ____;_____;_____;_____;_____;_____ Unbiased
Unfair _____;_____;_____;_____;_____;____ Fair
92
Reliability
• Internal consistency of a measure
• How appropriate/useful/precise/good measurements are
o E.g., measuring your weight numerous times
93
• Reliability Coefficient
o Ranges from 0 (zero) to 1 (one)
o Shows “how reliable we are in measuring something”
o Closer to one → higher reliability
o Usually, 0.7 and above is good
94
• Test-retest reliability
o Giving the measure twice and checking consistency between scores
• E.g., on and off the scale to measure your weight
95
• Split-half reliability
o Dividing the entire items to half and check the consistency between two parts
• E.g., 50 odd & 50 even number questions
96
• Cross-test reliability
o Using two instruments with different items to measure the same concept
• E.g., two diff versions of a test
97
• Inter-coder reliability
o Consistency of diff raters
| • E.g., counting the number of events
98
• Validity
o Reliability does NOT guarantee validity
o But, validity guarantee reliability
o A matter of congruence between the operational definition and the conceptual definition
o Degree to which a measure actually measures what is claimed
• C.f., internal vs. external validities
• Not simple as a 0-1 reliability coefficient
• Ongoing process & building good arguments
99
• Face validity
o “Does it look like measuring something that you want to measure?”
o Requires additional direct evidence + solid reasoning from researchers
100
• Predictive Validity
o Checking an instrument against future outcomes
| o E.g., behavioral intention measure → actual behaviors
101
• Concurrent Validity
o Instrument should correlate w/ other preexisting measurement. It should be similar to others.
o E.g., a new intelligence test should correlate with old, previous tests
102
• Construct Validity
o An instrument must be logically related to other concepts in the theory
• E.g., emotion measures
Positive emotions must be correlated with each other, but inversely correlated with negative emotions
