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Audience Research & Analysis > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Research

A

An attempt to discover something

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2
Q

Scientific Research

A

 A process of asking question(s) & then initiating a systematic process to obtain valid answers to that question
 Organized, objective, controlled, qualitative/quantitative empirical analysis of one or more variables

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3
Q

Epistemology

A 
“How we know something”
o	Tenacity
•	True cuz always been true
o	Intuition
•	True cuz it’s “self-evident”/”stands to reason”
o	Authority
•	Trusted source says it is true
o	Science
•	“truth” found only through series of objective analysis (self-correction)
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4
Q

Chars of scientific Method

• Public

A

o Freely available info

• Replication→Correction & verification

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5
Q

Chars of scientific Method

• Objective

A 
o	Explicit rules & procedures
o	Facts (apart from value judgments)
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6
Q

Chars of scientific Method

• Empirical (experienced)

A

o Knowable & measurable nature
o Rejecting metaphysical & nonsensical explanations of events
o Does NOT mean to avoid abstract concepts

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7
Q

Chars of scientific Method

• Conceptual Definition

A

o Defines a word by substituting other words or concepts (Dictionary)

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8
Q

Chars of scientific Method

• Operational Definition

A

o Specifies procedures that allow one to experience/measure a concept

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9
Q

Chars of scientific Method

• Systematic & Cumulative

A

o Step by step procedure

o Only partial knowledge

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10
Q

Chars of scientific Method

• Predictive

A

o Theory

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11
Q

Goal of Communication Research

A
  • Major Goal: testing & developing theory

* Goal of Communication theory: helping us organize & understand communication phenomena

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12
Q

Components of Theory

A

• Good Theory
o Logical, well reasoned, with sound structure
• Written in abstract level
o General descriptions of human mind to behavior

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13
Q

Requirements of Theory

• Falsifiable (testable)

A

o Cant test, not useful
o Ex: metaphysics
o Use method to test

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14
Q

Requirements of Theory

• Tentative (probability)

A

o No perfect theory
o Probable
o Base explanation
o What is best explanation?

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15
Q

Functions of Theory

• Description

A

o Theory clearly tells us about some phenomena

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16
Q

Functions of Theory

• Explanation

A

o How essential components work

o Answer for ‘why’

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17
Q

Functions of Theory

• Prediction

A

o Expectation, heuristic view

o Based on casual relationship among variable

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18
Q

Functions of Theory

• Control

A 
o	Practicality (applied research)
o	Medical research (theory to control disease)
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19
Q

Induction

A

• Data (observations) → theory (conclusion)

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20
Q

Deduction

A

• Theory (conclusion) → Data (observations)

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21
Q

Research Problems

A 
•	We do research cuz we are ignorant
•	Answer questions
•	Research Problem Question: Questions we expect to answer through research
•	2 Chars
o	limits on relevant info
o	structure inquiry
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22
Q

Good Research Questions/Hypotheses

A

• Must be within researcher’s capabilities
• Be narrow but not trivial
• Be stated unambiguously
• Include at least 2 variables
o What is the relationship between __ and __?
o The relationship between __ and __ will be…
• Be testable
• Be value-free
• Be grammatical

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23
Q

Hypotheses

A

• Expectation about events based on generalizations of the assumed relationship between variables
• Direct declarative answers to the problem
• Working hypothesis
o Tentative hypothesis assumed for the purposes of initiating research and subject to change as research progresses
• More than an “educated guess”. Based on rationale
• Characteristics
o Based on theory
o A tool
• Test a theory and decide which method
o Help us take terms (construct, concepts) observable
• We can identify observable chars
• (e.g. intelligence → intelligence “test”

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24
Q

• Material/research hypotheses

A 
o	Relationship does exist
o	Relationships
•	Correlation or causation
o	Directional hypotheses
•	The more e.g. aggressive, happier…
o	Nondirectional hypotheses:
•	We don’t know the direction, but something happens
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25
Q

• Null hypothesis

A

o No relationship/difference

o In research, we test null

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26
Q

• Variables

A

o Characteristics of a certain object that varies (cf. constants)
o E.g., gender, income, ed., intelligence…

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27
Q

o Independent

A
  • Variables that predict outcomes

* What researchers manipulate

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28
Q

o Dependent

A
  • Consequent, predicted results, outcomes

* Results of manipulation

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29
Q

4 Ethical Principles

A
  1. Autonomy
    - self determination & voluntary participation
  2. Nonmaleficence
  3. Beneficence
  4. Justice
    - equal treatment
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30
Q

• Ontology

A

o People have free will. Ppl can make their own choices free from external constraints.

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31
Q

• Axiology

A

o Knowledge is value free. We can get to know the world w/o any prejudice.

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32
Q

• Epistemology

A

o We can find out the Truth, that is never changing and always true.

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33
Q

Quantitative

A 
•	Structured approach, theory
•	Boring, nothing new
•	Examples
o	Survey
o	Experiment
o	Content analysis
•	Theory → Hypothesis → research & instrument design → data collection → Analysis & Interpretation → conclusion (& Theory Adjustment) → back to Theory
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34
Q

Quantitative • History

A

o Newish
o Social science
o Positivism

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35
Q

Quantitative • Epistemology

A

o Truth

o Theory first

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36
Q

Quantitative • Axiology

A

o Value free

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37
Q

Quantitative • Ontology

A

o No free choice

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38
Q

Quantitative • Focus

A

o Inferential
o Generalization
o Shallow, skim

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39
Q

Quantitative • Reasoning

A

o Deductive

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40
Q

Quantitative • Analysis Tool

A

o Numbers

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41
Q

Quantitative • Research Goal

A

o Generalization

42
Q

Quantitative • Research Procedure

A

o Highly structured

43
Q

Quantitative • Theory

A

o Theory testing

44
Q

Quantitative • Measure

A

o Validity/reliability

45
Q

Quantitative • Interaction w/ Subjects

A

o Usually mediated

o Experience distant

46
Q

Qualitative

A
  • Spontaneous, creative, explorative

* Lost, find nothing

47
Q

Qualitative• History

A

o Old
o Liberal arts/humanity
o Social constructivism

48
Q

Qualitative• Epistemology

A

o Truth - relative

o Research

49
Q

Qualitative• Axiology

A

o Value laden

50
Q

Qualitative• Ontology

A

o Free choice

51
Q

Qualitative• Focus

A 
o	Descriptive
o	Case study
o	Depth 
•	Examples
o	Field observation
o	In depth interview
o	Focus groups
52
Q

Qualitative• Reasoning

A

o Inductive

53
Q

Qualitative• Analysis Tool

A

o Symbols

54
Q

Qualitative• Research Goal

A

o Understanding

55
Q

Qualitative• Research Procedure

A

o Relatively unstructured

56
Q

Qualitative• Theory

A

o Theory building

57
Q

Qualitative• Measure

A

o Trustworthiness

58
Q

Qualitative• Interaction w/ Subjects

A

o Usually face-to-face

o Experience near

59
Q

Qualitative• Strength

A

o Thick description
o Consideration on context
o Natural setting
o High flexibility

60
Q

Issue, setting, or text →

A

observation/interview → data collection → Literature Review (theory) → analysis & interpretation → Understanding

61
Q

Why interview?

A 
•	Exploring
•	Can be
•	Ground work for other qualitative methods
•	Sometimes, it’s better than survey
o	Reducing refusal rate
o	Recoding info missed in questionnaires
62
Q

o Structured interview

A
  • Efficient
  • Organized
  • Answer research question
  • Survey
63
Q

o Unstructured interview

A
  • Interesting new answers

* May waste time

64
Q

In-Depth Interview

A
  • Requires a time commitment from a participant
  • Usually one-on-one convo
  • Comfort zone
  • Key informants
  • Fieldnotes
  • IRB (anonymity & confidentiality)
65
Q

In-Depth Interview• Advantages

A

o Wealth of detail
o More accurate responses to sensitive issues
o More control than observation-only

66
Q

In-Depth Interview• Disadvantages

A

o Low generalizability (nonrandom sample)
o High cost & time
o Interviewer’s skills
o Sensitive to interviewer’s bias

67
Q

Focus Group

A

• Unstructured discussion about research topic with 6-12 participants
• Moderator
• Group dynamics
• Purposes
o To gather preliminary info for a project
o To develop questionnaire items for survey
o To understand reasons behind a particular phenomenon
o To test preliminary ideas or plans

68
Q

Focus Group:

Procedure

A 
•	Assembling the groups
o	No random samples (targeted ppl)
o	Usually more than two groups
•	Preparing study mechanics
o	Physical surroundings
•	Preparing materials and questions
o	Let participants know the topic before the session
o	Structured questions, but tend to be flexible
•	Conducting the session
o	Encourage open discussion
o	Avoid judgment
•	Analyzing data & writing the report
69
Q

During the Session

A

• Same as interview technique in in-depth interview
• How to handle participants
o Shy ppl must be encouraged to speak up
o Know-it-all ppl must be prevented from dominating the group
o Over-talkers must be encouraged to be brief
o Obnoxious ppl must be cut off & perhaps removed from the group

70
Q

Focus Group: Advantages

A
  • Flexibility
  • Good to collect preliminary info
  • Time & cost efficient
  • Group dynamics
71
Q

Focus Group: Disadvantages

A
  • Reps: (Low external validity)
  • Highly dependent on the moderator’s ability
  • Discussion may be dominated by few ppl
72
Q

Field Observation

A

• Studying groups by gaining membership or close relationships with them
Overt
•
•
• Observer Participant
•
o Covert

73
Q

Field Observation: Procedure

A 
•	Choosing the research site
•	Gaining access
o	Building rapport
•	Sampling
o	What behavioral episodes to sample
•	Collecting data
o	Field notes
o	Qualitative interview
•	Analysis & interpretation
•	Exiting the field setting
74
Q

Field Observation: Advantages

A

• Natural settings (unobtrusive means) & context
• Questions of why, how, and in what way
o (c.f., Quantitative research: how much, how many, how often, to what extent)
• In some cases, the only available method

75
Q

Field Observation: Disadvantages

A
  • Reps (low external validity)
  • Researchers’ preconceptions of results
  • Problem of reactivity
76
Q

Data & Analysis

A

• Rich description of the context
• Unique characteristics of the ppl, group, setting, communicative styles
• Unify certain characteristics with a specific theme (must be based on solid evidence & reasoning)
o Comparative assignment of incidents to categories
o Elaboration and refinement of categories
o Search for relationships and themes among categories
o Simplifying and integrating data into a coherent theoretical structure

77
Q

Concepts

A

• An abstract idea formed by generalizing from particulars and summarizing related observations
• Concepts simplify
o Research process by combing particular characteristics, objects, or ppl into general categories
o Communication among those who have a shared understanding of them

78
Q

• Conceptual Definitions

A

o Use other words to define a concept

o Dictionary definitions (abstract)

79
Q

• Operational Definitions (operationalization)

A

o Making concepts observable/measurable
o What is to be observed by specifying what researchers must do to make observations
o E.g., love → How can we know someone loves us?

80
Q

• Internal validity

A

o Whether the study really investigate the proposed research question or hypothesis
o The question of control
o Precision of the relationship

81
Q

• External validity

A

o How well the results of a study can be generalized across pop, settings and time
o Question of sampling
o Generalizability of the relationship

82
Q

Measurement

A

• Assigning numeric values to variables
• Level of measurement
o Based on precision and hierarchy (or amt) of info
• Ex: Q. The ad that I watched is humorous
o Option 1
• Yes
• No
o Option 2
• Strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree

83
Q

• Nominal Level

A 
o	Categories (classification)
o	3 Chars
•	At least 2 categories
•	Exhaustive accounts for every possible option
•	Mutually exclusive; no redundancy
o	Categorical order does NOT matter
o	Least amt of info
84
Q

• Ordinal Level

A 
o	Same as nominal
•	Categories in a rank order              
•	E.g., “greater than…, less than.., or equal to…”
o	Ex: Q. How many hrs do you daily spend watching tv?     
•	1 hr
•	2 hrs
•	3 hrs
•	4 hrs
•	more than 4 hrs
o	what if you watch less than 1 hr?
o	nominal/ordinal 
•	meaningful mathematics line
85
Q

o Interval Level

A

• Have all chars of nominal & ordinal levels _ other chars
• Dist between categories is known (i.e., known entity)
• Consistent across categories
 E.g., 1 2 3 4 5: categories
• Equal dist: 1
• Magnitude
• When we give a zero point, dist becomes to have meaning
• Arbitrary zero point: adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing
• Most data in comm science

86
Q

o Ratio Level

A

• Interval Level + abs (real) zero pt
 The absence of quantity being measured
 E.g., absence of money, absence of behavior
 E.g., 0 degrees in a thermometer

87
Q

• Categorical data: nominal & ordinal (less complicated)

A

o Inventing categories

o E.g. groups of ppl to adolescence, adults, etc.

88
Q

• Continuous data: interval & ratio (complicated)

A

o Much more dynamic/informative/sophisticated/precise

o E.g., grouping ppl based on age

89
Q

Scale

A

• A composite measure of a variable
• Rating scales (I/R levels)
o More points → more differentiation
o Higher number → Higher degree

90
Q

• Likert Scales

A

Strongly disagree(1)–Disagree(2)–Neutral(3)–Agree(4)–Strongly Agree(5)

91
Q

• Semantic Differential Scales

A

o Bipolar adjectives
Biased ____;_____;_____;_____;_____;_____ Unbiased
Unfair _____;_____;_____;_____;_____;____ Fair

92
Q

Reliability

A

• Internal consistency of a measure
• How appropriate/useful/precise/good measurements are
o E.g., measuring your weight numerous times

93
Q

• Reliability Coefficient

A

o Ranges from 0 (zero) to 1 (one)
o Shows “how reliable we are in measuring something”
o Closer to one → higher reliability
o Usually, 0.7 and above is good

94
Q

• Test-retest reliability

A

o Giving the measure twice and checking consistency between scores
• E.g., on and off the scale to measure your weight

95
Q

• Split-half reliability

A

o Dividing the entire items to half and check the consistency between two parts
• E.g., 50 odd & 50 even number questions

96
Q

• Cross-test reliability

A

o Using two instruments with different items to measure the same concept
• E.g., two diff versions of a test

97
Q

• Inter-coder reliability

A

o Consistency of diff raters

• E.g., counting the number of events

98
Q

• Validity

A

o Reliability does NOT guarantee validity
o But, validity guarantee reliability
o A matter of congruence between the operational definition and the conceptual definition
o Degree to which a measure actually measures what is claimed
• C.f., internal vs. external validities
• Not simple as a 0-1 reliability coefficient
• Ongoing process & building good arguments

99
Q

• Face validity

A

o “Does it look like measuring something that you want to measure?”
o Requires additional direct evidence + solid reasoning from researchers

100
Q

• Predictive Validity

A

o Checking an instrument against future outcomes

o E.g., behavioral intention measure → actual behaviors

101
Q

• Concurrent Validity

A

o Instrument should correlate w/ other preexisting measurement. It should be similar to others.
o E.g., a new intelligence test should correlate with old, previous tests

102
Q

• Construct Validity

A

o An instrument must be logically related to other concepts in the theory
• E.g., emotion measures
 Positive emotions must be correlated with each other, but inversely correlated with negative emotions

Audience Research & Analysis (1 decks)

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