Exam 1 Flashcards
What is an organism?
it is a living entity
What is ecology?
The study of interaction between organisms and their environment and determines the abundance and distribution of organisms
What are observational uses?
descriptive science of patterns that they saw and had questions to create the hypothesis then experiments
What are experiments?
They explain why it causes patterns by helping to identify the causation
What are quantitative measurements?
statistical analysis are bigger than experimental data and larger than observational data sets refining ability of things that experiments can’t get
What is mathematical theory?
they model what might happen from experiments they do things before an experiment or what an experiment is unable to
What is competition?
competition is negative for both individuals
What is predation?
predation is positive for one individual and negative for the other being predated
What is mutualism?
Is positive for both individuals
What is parasitism?
is positive for one individual and negative for another
What is comensalism?
is positive for one and does not affect the other
What is neutralism?
it doesn’t not overly effect other
What is amensalism?
negative to one and doesn’t affect the other
What is evolution?
it is the change in gene frequency within a population or a group of individuals in one species over time. a process
What is a gene?
it is a heritable piece of DNA that codes for a specific trati with a combination of alleles producing varying trasits among populations
What are the mechanisms of evolution?
natural selection, mutations, genetic drift
What is natural selection?
a mechanism of evolution that is a differential survival and reproduction of individuals within a population due to environmental influences selectively acting on heritable variation in traits ex. individuals with certain traits survive and have more offspring not a process
What are mutations?
the change in gene frequencies with new gene and new allele populations possible.
What is gene flow?
flow or movement of genes into populations
What is genetic drift?
random loss of genes, especially in small populations
What is genotype?
allele combinations of genes that differs between individuals (leading to variation) and that in combination with the environment leads to the phenotype genetic material that leads to a trait
What is phenotype?
the external expression of a trait, product of genotype and environment
What is plasticity?
allows the expression of different phenotypes from 1 genotype if in different environments trigger different developmental pathway based upon environmental conditions
ex. butter cup leaves hot dry areas large and spindly, wet low to ground; narrow leaves
What is heritability?
the proportion of phenotypic variation that is due to genotypic variation.
What is fitness?
the relative contribution that an individual makes to the gene pool of future generations with higher fitnesses for individuals who survive and reproduce.
number of offspring or genes contributed by an individual to future generations sustaining same over time
What is relativity?
compare between individuals within a species due to the limit of resources used by a particular species
What is the process of adaptation?
it increases the suitability or fitness of a species for its environment due to natural selection ex. process of adaptation leading to trait based on beak size to eat seeds
What is the product of adaptation?
favorable trait that allows allowed more favorable survival due to natural election ex. opposable thumbs, beak sizes
What is adaptive evolution?
leads to a better fit to the environment as it is evolution due to natural selection, not necessarily turning into a trait
What are the limits to perfect adaptation?
- gene flow brings in genes not adapted to surviving salty environments and it limits the ability to have perfect adaptation and don’t have pressure of other environments such as ecotypes
- mutation- have different ability than other individually usually lowers fitness limiting adaptation
- trade-offs- attracting mate and trying to survive increasing the fitness in one acid decreasing the fitness in another one
- design constraints- physics limit the possibilities ex. bird eat seeds and index easy to break down can’t eat leaves, or cows need lots of stomach to break down
- genetic drift- only limiting adaptation in small populations not larger population and is usually just neutral alleles. each one loses carrying something slightly unique in small populations lose a whole portion of some aspect of the species, not just because of higher fitness none of them saw just closest and nothing to do with its fitness, decreases variation can be random to most fit individual reducing the fitness of the population
- changing environments- different environments each year, organism staying fit in one year not in next changing under population.
What are ecotypes?
locally adapted and genetically distinctive population within a species
What are the Hardy-Weinberg assumptions?
- Random mating
- no mutations
- large population size
- no immigration or emigration gene flow or genetic drift
- all genotypes have equal fitness
* 6. no natural/sexual selection
What is stabilizing selection?
impedes the changes in populations acting against extremes with average higher fitness
What is directional selection?
favors an extreme phenotype over other phenotypes in a population, larger or smaller and have higher rates of survival while average and opposite doesn’t
What is disruptive selection?
do not show normal distribution of characteristics, 2 or more extreme phenotypes not just one peak on average.
What is heritability?
the proportion of total phenotypic variation in a trait, that is attributable to genetic variance increase with genetic variation and is decreased with increase environmental effects.
What is intrasexual selection?
compete with others for mates of the same sex influenced by natural selection ex. groups of animals
What is intersexual selection?
opposite sex choose based on trait countered by natural selection and production until balanced influenced by natural selection ex. peacock
What is sociality?
group living and cooperation exchanging resources between individuals or various forms of assistance with the degree of which mutual grooming, group protection of young, stratified societies
What is eusociality?
create caste systems so many genes shared between individuals in a cony all worker have basically identical genes helping one another by helping themselves
1) individuals of more than one generation living together
2) cooperative care of young
3) division of individual into sterile or non reproductive cycle clusters
What is cooperative breeding?
cooperativitiy or can help in process of producing young, defending territory, preparation and maintaining nest or feeding young
by helping to increase their own evolutionary or genetic, fitness by improving the rates of survival and reproduction of relative adding to inclusive fitness.
What is inclusive fitness?
an individual who has inclusive or their overall fitness determined by their own survival and reproduction plus survival and reproduction of individuals they share genes with
What is kin selection?
gene can help spread itself by helping identical genes or one organism spread genes by helping individual relative with my genes as an argument for altruism
they provide help to relatives that creates an evolutionary force favoring help selection will favor diverting resources to kin under conditions where it benefits the helper, increasing the survival and reproduction of kin exceeding depending upon genetic relatedness to the helper and the reproduction cost
2) helping also improves helpers own probability of successful reproduction, as they gain experience in raising increasing the chance of success of successful raising young and recruiting helpers and is limited to breeding with the helpers having a better chance of inheriting breeding territory from reproductive individuals they help.
What is philopatry?
the love of place or the tendency of organisms to remain in the same area throughout their lives with the same breeding place that is pretected and inherited
What is lifetime reproductive success?
The total number of offspring produced over the course of a lifetime with females who are delayed till they are older having a total lower success
What is the comparative method?
they provide comparisons of characteristics of different species or populations of organisms in a way that attempts to isolate a particular variable or characteristic of interest or sociality
What are castes?
they are a group of physically distinctive indiciuals that engage in specialized behavior within the colony having size differences and different functions for society if it is small they do major work, if they are large many protect
What is haplodiploidy?
the number of chromosomes are different among individuals with males usually haploid and stem from unfertilized cells whereas females are from fertilized cells and are diploid and genetically similar and are more related to eachtoher than their own offspring 75%. queen stores many males sperm so related 81–85%
What is environmental enrichment?
increasing complexity of captive environment and help captive animals retain behaviors for survival?
What is self-fertilization?
cloning, bits break off to become own organism, budding not influenced natural selection
What is parthenogenesis?
female creates haploid offspring
What are Harem systems?
eusocial animals some insects mating very unevenly performed one male to several females dictated by natural selection
What are the genetic levels?
population genetics genes are the primary level of selection, mutations move through the population on own that is better and stronger
What is the evolution of an individual organisms?
Darwin’s driving choice, organisms as level of selection whole organism 1 great great gene and bad genes will more likely die
What is group selection?
level of selection is the whole population and there are only examples when groups of individuals live and die tied to each other
problems include if one is diseased all becomes diseased as they are limited in are
What is speciation?
separation of species happen when groups lose the ability to interbreed by reproductive isolating mechanisms that keep individuals from producing together viable and fertile offspring
What are the pre-zygotic barriers that cause speciation?
behavioral, no longer part of population, change in time, don’t fit together do longer encounter to breed, specific trait separation
geographic isolating mechanism cuts off gene flowing in more likely to get speciation
What are the post-zygotic barriers that cause speciation?
sterile
What is the Biological species concept?
a species= a group of actually or potentially interbreeding individuals reproducing to create viable and fertile offspring
How long is the turnover time for the atmosphere?
9 days
How long is the turnover time for the rivers?
12-20 days
How long is the turnover time for the lakes?
days to centuries
How long is the turnover time for the oceans?
3,100 years
What are the horizontal structures of the ocean?
littoral/intertidal zone with a shallow shoreline under the influence of temperature
neritic zone- extends from the coastal margin of continental shelf that extend out up to 200m
oceanic zones- beyond continental shelf
variation of salinity from oceanic to the littoral zone
What are the vertical layers of the ocean?
epipelagic- surface layer of the ocean that extends to 200m (1st ten meters 80% of sunlight upper epipelagic/photic top 10 m 1/2 of photosynthesis of planet, euphoric zone 10-100m, despotic not enough light for photosynthesis )
below 100m very little temperature variation annually at any latitude
mesopelagic- extending between 200-1000m
bathypelagic- extends 1000-4000m
abyssalpelagic-4000-6000m
hadal zone-deepest bottom of ocean 6000+
Where are salinities lowest and why?
equator precipitation however solutes, Na+, Mg2+ and Cl- constant everywhere due to mixing and runoff due to rivers,
baltic sea 7ppt
maximum temperature is 27.5oC, -1.5oC minimum arctic
Where are salinities the highest?
subtropic 20-30o N+S deserts, red sea (40ppt) with denser water so flow better because of evaporation from the surfaces of water
34-36mm ppt in open ocean
what is the trend of oxygen?
the deeper it is the more oxygen content minimum at 1000m
Where are coral reefs present?
30 oN+S with the fringing reefs hugging the shore of coast located between the open sea and lagoon and not where there is runoff from rivers with temperatures not below 18-20oC, 23-25oC
fringing reefs require sunlight for their algae, and low turbidity so sunlight penetrates, stable saline and oxygen, in neurotic attached to benthic surface within photic zone, few within littoral and epipelagic
increase in nutrients from lakes in rivers create algal blooms which block out the sunlight,
Where are kelp forests present?
temperate to subpolar populations contain epiphytic algae and sessile invertebrates lowest 10oC highest 20oC winder tolerable of less salt near rocky shores and estuaries. usually ranges in temp of area by 7-9oC
survive higher turbidity in winter temps below 10oc usually 25-40m deep to 100m depending on photic zone there is more oxygen in water at colder temps, will be by rivers as more resistant to salinity range and the mixing of water is good
What are coral atolls?
they dot tropical pacific and indian oceans and are coral islets built up from submerged oceanic islands ringing the lagoon with lots of O2.
What are reef crests?
15m below surface corals grow in the surge zone created by waves from the open sea
what are buttress zones?
where coral formations alternate with sand bottomed congas
What are lagoon?
behind the reef crest contain numeras patches of small coral reefs and sea grass
What are the different levels of the intertidal zones?
it is the area covered by waves at high tide spring tide highest and air at low tide
supra tidal fringe-splash zone heighest elevation and seldom covered by tides but is wetted by waves exposed to O2 at low tide and is mixed
upperintertidal zone- upper covered only in highest tides lowest uncovered only during low tides
middle intertidal- covered and uncovered averagely
lower intertidal-least exposure o atmosphere most inundation
subtidal- fish and kelp began only storms or tsunamis
What are estuaries?
where the river meets the sea
What are salt marshes?
can occur at land and sea low lying coasts with sandy shores or mouths of rivers
have herbaceous vegetation sandy shores temeprature to high latitudes channels that fill and empty with tides salt collection usually dominated by grasses, pickelweed and thrushes not diverse
oxygen depleted due to decamp
What are mangrove forests?
same as salt marsh but occur at tropical and sub-tropical latitudes including terrestrial climate of tropical rain forest dry forest, savanna and desert and have mangrove trees with a lot of one not very diverse
oxygen depleted due to decamp
different tides touching areas
What happens with the incoming tide in estuaries, salt marshes and mangroves?
on the incoming tide the seawater from the ocean and river flows opposite direction and due to the ocean’s water being colder and more salt filled it is denser with the ocean water flowing up the river but the river water flowing on top of ocean flowing downriver to the mouth mixing and becoming more salty closer to ocean and less salty farther away as mixing is less
What are populations?
collection of interbreeding individuals in a species or the individuals of the same species in one place due to the heritable variation in traits inheriting within the population
What is a developmental response?
reaction to a response in one individual’s lifetime.
What is ecological time scale?
enough time for interactions between individuals or species to population dynamics can be time w/in generation or several
What is the evolutionary time scale?
greater than one generation-milennia the time for adaptation or separation to happen
What is allopatric speciation-
other country or geographical location include vicariance and founder effects
What is sympatric speciaiton?
same country and area. is a divergence and separation of speciation without a geographic isolating mechanism such as polyploidy which is an instant mistake
organisms with different ploidy can’t reproduce with each other
higher ploidy has higher fitness and performance for plants representing the most advantageous trait
but are genetically de pauper ate or low genetic variation
What is vicariance?
is allopatric speciation/ a process by which the geographical range of an individual taxon, or a whole biota, is split into discontinuous parts by the formation of a physical or biotic barrier to gene flow or dispersal
What are the founder effects?
have little genetic material making them genetically poor and they are not able to respond to changes and not able to adequately recover due to low genetic variation having a higher likelihood of interbreeding
What determines the pace of evolution/speciation?
- generation time if there are millions of generations in one week faster evolution with shorter life spans, determined also by earlier reproductive maturity
- rate of changing in the environment as it produces a selective force (directional selection has consistent change towards one or if it is to fast and strong their is a possible extinction of the organisms and its death
- strength of the selective force if it affects fitness minimilly it does not affect evolution more than the past ex. eye quality getting wider spread, relaxed and not selected for
- amount of variation present in the population if there is a large population larger will more easily adapt to change climate change too fast for organisms and populations to adapt if some still and can’t respond if they die or are not selected for.
Describe the formation of rain over the equator and deserts at 30o.
The sun’s most direct and powerful sunlight hits the equator and does not heat evenly over the earth, and as the sun heats the air making it rise and when it rises it becomes more dense as it cools and condenses the water molecules forming clouds that release their water as there is less pressure and the water condenses because of the molecules moving farther away from each other with less kinetic energy and held less tightly as it continues cooling raining over the equator this air continually rises and flows toward the equator by the continuously upward flowing air when the air reaches around the 30o latitude it begins to sink and the dry air with no moisture takes the moisture from the surrounding area and traveling back down toward the equator along the ground with above air traveling to the poles
What are the different wind directions between the northern and southern hemisphere?
the equator spins faster than the poles, as the girth of earth is a greater distance
In NH it blows NE clockwise cold water on west coast, in the SH it blows SE cold water on west coasts.
deflection of winds to the right and in the south to the left counterclockwise
air moves from where it was faster to slower carrying momentum and spinning east
temperate westerlies 30-60, polar/equatorial 90-60, 30-0 easterlies
westerlie-come from the west to the east
easterlie- come from the east to the west
What is the organic horizon?
the topmost layer consisting of freshly fallen organic materials, the deeper layers of this portion are fragmented and partially decomposed with these deeper layers missing in agricultural soils and deserts
has detritus breaking down the nutrients
What is the A horizon?
The layer that consists of a mixture of minerals, clay, silt, sand and organic mater, with increased levels of biological activating as earthworms mix this and above as well
What is the B horizon?
from the A horizon contains clay, humus from water, color, banding and roots. depositional horizon
What is the C horizon?
weathered parent material from frost, water, trees breaking down to sand silt and clay sized rock fragments
What is the bedrock/R horizon?
unweathered area, bedrock
What is the tropical rain forest?
25-27oC. 2000-2000mm rain within 10o north and south of the equator with heavy rains leaching the nutrients from the soils with rapid decomposition in warm moist forest keeping organic levels of matter low, with nutrient poor acidic soil that is thin and water leeches out nutrients allowing for erosion with more nutrients stored in the tissues of the organisms than the soil by miccorhizae 300 species, epiphytes trees, little variation in temperatures, moss growing toward and on trees 3D structure, tall trees
What is the tropical dry forest?
have seasons of dry and wet times when it is dry most of the trees are dormant 10-25oC, on fringing of rain forests, 6-7month seasons, old soils ancient continent and less acidic and richer less growing although it is feasible to erosion and leechingin the wet season, leaves correlated with precipitin and when it is dry drop all of the leaves with seasonal migration, better agriculture, lots of water that is not continually enough, temp fairly consistent with times of huge variation in water, little closer to equator than the savannah
when the sun is at the tropics of cancer and capricorn being dry, and dry when cold in winter and wet in summer when peak rainfall and heat
What is the tropical savanna?
where humans began. north and south of tropical dry forests within 10-20o of equator, have alternating dry and wet seasons, with seasonal droughts and fire keeping trees away by fire-resistant grasses. lightning and fire in wet season, usually drier than tropical rain forests, with soil layers with permeability to water, no trees where impeccable subsoil keeps surface soils waterlogged during wet seasons and scattered trees where soils drained, migrating animals, range of seasonality, always above freezing, more temperature variation and 2D, where trees are there is water in the area, migrating herds change distribution of nutrients eating and defecating changing for next year, when dries up grasses seed, low water permeability in noilds not held at lower levels, soil too dry for trees, with standing water rotting roots
What is the desert?
wind and water affect drought and flash flood with both heat and but cold saltie soils 20% land surface covered by and increasing. 30oN+S where air descends, deep interior of continents or rain shadow of mountains or the west coast of continents as air circulating across of ocean deliver a lot of fog to coast but usually little rain. can have drought all year and can go between -20o-30oC. with water loss due to evaporation and transpiration by plants exceeding precipitation. low in organic matter with minerals. or hard to reach soils under shrubs have organic matter and fertility most places increase concentration of salt by evaporation.
lithosoils- less A and B instead of C stones or mineral salts
with caliche calcium carbonate soils and horizons, sparse plant cover, and protecting photosynthetic surfaces small leaves only in rainfall water pulls up nutrients and makes it hard to get through
can be cold or hot desert, higher and drier mid continent even though a lot of rain, more radiation than water, in winter could be frozen little growth in plants water loss usually always exceed precip, plant cover ranges from sparse to absent, low abundance but biodiversity high stressing behavioral adaptation
What is the mediteranean woodland and shrubland/chaparall?
greece, mediteranean sea, chile, s australis, s africa. 30-40o north of deserts and chaparral. California and Western Mexico, mediteranean europe, and north africa, south africa, S australia, Chile
heat increases rain decreases cool and moist during fall, winter and spring, with hot dry summers, dense vegetation and rich in essential oils, low-moderate fertility, and fragile to soil erosion or severe fire. have adaptations to drought such as evergreens with mutuallistic microbes. decamp slowed during dry summer and increase rest of year rates similar to temeprates, fire-resistant plants and bark or rich in oil to burn and sprout rapidly and easily. plants grow in either cold in wet or hot and dry can be freezing, tees and shrubs typically evergreen and waxy with no loss of water and fire resistant due to fire regime
What is the temperate grassland?
largest biome with widespread distribution , 300-1000mm precip wetter than deserts with droughts that will last years and maximum precipitation in the summer, winters cold and summers hot. Soils are deep can be basic or neutral but are fertile with a lot of organic matter, herbaceous fire-excluding vegetation 70 species of plant, root system of grasses creates sod resisting invasion by trees and plows. social groups of animals, ex. bread basket kansas. most time have enough water periodic droughts, , but when lighning and thunderstorms with fire dangerous but maintain open prairie switching it between grass and forest
What is the temperate forest?
mostly northern hemisphere sometimes variation in temp and water availability lots and lots of water in cooler, holding onto water and amount makes it temperate. largest species of trees and evergreens, subdued light of cool, moist realm with mushrooms and decaying leaves some 30-55o latitude, most 40-50o. with more winter precipitation than temperate grasslands, 4 month growing season, 3-4 month winters, temperatures less extreme 650-3000mm
warmer than boreal with a different growing season, longer growing season
fertile soil,, bacteria consume large quantities of wood stored on floor of old growth temperate forests, recycling nutrients, agriculture, production high fertile soil with slow decomposition
can be coniferous- more severe winters or drier sumer most of precip fall winter and spring with summer drought, poorer acidic soils, slower and more conservative nutrient movement , don’t lose leaves
or deciduous- usually dominate temperate forests, mild winters, restricted to watery areas if in coniferous, most fertile sole neutral or slightly acidic and rich in both organic matter and inorganic nutrients, nutrient movement dynamic. diversity of trees lower than tropical but biomass can be greater and vertically stratified, lose leaves
What are the vertical layers of the forest- herb layer-lowers
shrubs
shade-tolerant understory trees
canopy trees 40-100m
What is the boreal forest/taiga?
50-65o, 11% of surface, wood and water, next to tundra in north and temperate forests and grasslands in south. very cold has colder winters, and hotter summers and a longer growing season than tundra, 3-4months of growing with a large change in temperature less variability of water, have more water most of the time, confierous solid made up of needles, less diversity high animal density
long winters greater than 6 months and summers too short for temperate trees, variable or moderate climatee -70o-30 200-6000mmprecip decreased evaporation, infrequent drought when occurs forest fires are devastating, low fertility of soils with thin soil and permafrost and acidic, low temp and pH decreasing decomposition, decreasing soil building nutrients in plant litter on floor with shallow roots, evergreen conifers furry animals. no vines there are epiphytes lichens and mistletoe and wind pollinates trees
What is the tundra?
mosses, lichens and dwarf willows, north of arctic circle, cold and dry less severe winters, shorter summers 200-600mm precip, temps so low precipitin is greater than evaporation so soggy summers, slow soil building, low decomp, organic matter accumulates in peat and warms, permafrost thaw in summer underneath thick permafrost with soil fluctuations of thawing and freezing moving soils down the slopes and storing surface water, perennial herbaceous plants that have a large concentration of native species.
permafrost brief periods of bloom and warmth moving toward 2D less trees more lichens, cool and dry with short summers, substantial number of native mammals..
What is the mountains?
have several biomes per mountain, built by volcanism movement of earth, increase elevations at polar and tropical decreased prep, soils change with elevation well drained thing and vulnerable to erosion, winds form lowland deposits soil and organic matter and mountains building,
with each 1000m gain in altitude temperature decreases by 6oC
What is a drought?
extended period of dry weather during which precipitation is reduced it damages crops, impairs normal functioning of ecosystems and water shortages
What causes monsoons and tropical storms?
air masses heat and air mass create turbulence as they are hitting eachtoher
What are the continental effects?
lots of temperature variation at the center of large land masses ex. russia very cold and hot
What are the latitudinal changes from the equator?
each 80km away from the equator temperature decreases by 6oC.
What is the rain effect?
The air from waves hits the mountain and goes up cooling the air and releasing the rain and most of its moisture then when it reaches the top at its coldes it has lost all of its moisture and it sinks down the other side warming up and stealing the moisture and water from the earth sucking up the moisture.
What are the aspects?
In the Northern hemisphere- northern facing slopes are cooler, southern aspects- warmer year round all of the time
Southern hemisphere opposite
eastern aspects- cooler, moister, has morning gentler sunlight
western- warmer drier, lose moisture from hot sun in the afternoon
What are biomes?
distinctive biogeographical regions distinguised characteristic plant formation associated with particular climates and soils
What are miccorhizae?
fungi that assist plants in accessing nutrients, photosynthesizing plants gives glucose to micchorizzae and the micchorizzae give nitrogen and possum and are extensions from foots for trees and plants
What is the hydrologic cycle?
71% of globe covered in H20, 97% of water in oceans, 2% of water in ice caps and glaciers, 1% in rivers streams, lakes.
bottom is benthic vs. water column is pelagic
What effects the speed of evolution?
how much genetic flow or how many new genes are coming into the population affecting the gene frequency of a population, increasing gene flow and can increase speed of evolution, how fast species reproduction and life span are saved. changing environments and the level of abrupt change or slow change favoring one genetic drift over another
Describe the life near the coast.
coasts, nutrients from terrestrial run off, coral reef and kelp photosynthesis 3D sitting organisms in photic zone, below there is less and so in middle of ocean less because they ar enot as close but there is life from photo and zoo-plankton and can’t really see
What is thermocline?
it is a gradient layer of water through which temperature changes rapidly
Describe the use of oxygen in the ocean?
Only limiting where chemosynthesis, 2000mL O2 in air, in water 9mL of O2 but most of the time not limiting concentrations decline to 1000m then increase
Where is thermocline present?
equatorial regions have a thermocline year round, temperate regions have a thermocline in the summer..
temperate pond/lake ice floats and its warmer right below the ice and cooled on the bottom with mixing in fall and spring
What are autotrophs?
create own food/energy to eat and use inorganic sources of carbon and energy
What is photosynthesis?
uses CO2 and light as energy sources
What is chemosynthesis?
use other inorganic molecules as energy sources
What are the properties of light?
it propagates as a wave and a particle with a certain amount of energy and wavelengths that are usable in photosynthetic active range 400-700nm.
What are the three types of photosynthesis?
C3, C4, CAM
What is C3 photosynthesis?
most common, make PGA to bigger sugar cells in mesophillic as Co2 flows into plant through open stomata that allows gas through depending upon amount of water in bundle and mesophyll cells, more water opens up and less water closes up
What is C4 photosynthesis?
C4 photosynthesis in drier environments Co2 in water out, con2 combines with PEP to form organic acid with PEP carboxylase having high affinity for CO2 to open fewer stomata to take in enough CO2 with the acid going into bundle sheath cells and breaking down to pyruvate and creating sugar through same processes ex. grasses
grasses higher affinity because it is separated and so less stomata open
What is CAM photosynthesis?
open stomata take in CO2 at high when the temperatures lower and humidity higher, closed when hot everything in mesophyll conversion occurs during day with CO2 taking in all night converting to PEP
What is a resource?
something that can be used and used up as a requirement for survival ex. light for plants, water for animals and plants
What is a condition?
something that affects the growth and survival but cannot be used up ex. animals can’t use up light or O2, water for fish, CO2 for plants
What is the principle of allocation?
in a world of limited resources organisms allocate energy to the most important functions
What are the terms for the optimal foraging theory?
E/t= energy intake per unit time
Ni- number of prey encountered of species i=proportion of prey in the environment
Ei= energy intake per individual of the species
Cs=same search cost of animal doing searching
Hi=handgling time for species i
What is the optimal foraging theory?
models feeding behavior as an optimizing if organisms have limited access to energy, natural selection is likely to favor individuals within a population that are more effective at acquiring energy
What are the assumptions of the optimal foraging theory?
1) forager searches randomly; knows all of the prey types that are available. perfect info and knows all of the relative values of each Ei, Ni, Hi
2) assume that the forager maximizes the rate of energy intake
3) balances gains E and Costs, h and C
4) searches randomly
What are the predictions of the optimal foraging theory?
1) diet should reflect prey abundance ease of handling and energy. with all other things being equal, foragers eat the most abundant prey. but all things are not equal, because prey have different Hi and Ei. So organisms prioritize high quality items if Ni and Hi are equal
2. as food becomes more abundant organisms become more selective, things they ate before may be rejected in abundant times
3. the proportion of which prey are consumed depends on the abundances of higher quality item
4. always foraging a little more than they show of low quality items, because it is easier to find low quality items in order to eat have to pass up low quality item don’t pass them up when they are hunger
What are the problems with the assumptions and prediction?
1) assume constant environment and organisms has perfect info and it does not change when it does and environment changes
2) don’t search randomly instead targeted search
3) it assumes organism organize optimally when there are many different evolutionary things so multiple problems with trying to maximize more things to one, search cost no landscape of predator included
What is homeostasis?
maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment despite a changing external environment most affected by water, temperature and gas exchange
What is acclimation?
the change in performance, optimum, avoidance, lethal, a change in the exposure to condition, fatter or mature putting on more weight is not a heritable trait and is a change in performance and a behavioral change/adjustment in response to an environment change done in one lifetime, improve performance in a range of conditions
Where is the tropic of cancer located?
Northern Hemisphere
Where is the tropic of capricorn located?
southern
What is adiabatic cooling?
adiabatic cooling without an exchange of heat or energy to the surrounding up mountain
What are some mechanisms plant use to resist water loss and heat increases?
highly reflecting leaves with higher albedos, or thorns and hairs that reflect light
as sunlight is not limiting and get morning sun not as hot and lose less water then it adaptively wilts
open growth more exposure to the wind but a lower SA for water to evaporate off ground plants for more wind through bottom ,
leaves parallel to sun, straight up so surface area touching minimized
smaller leaves and lighter colors to reflect
increasing convection while minimizing evaporation
What is heliotropism
turning to follow the sun,
What is convection?
heat lost to wind,
What is conduction?
heat from ground
What are some mechanisms plant use in cold climates? ?
low growth for conduction from the ground lower albedo and darker absorbing more , minimizing convection and loss of heat
orient leaves perpendicular to sun
What are poi kilotherms?
they do not regulate their internal temperature let vary with atmospheric temperature most plants and aquatic vary with environment
What are ectotherms?
use outside environment to regulate internal temperature, ex. basking, wilting of plants or following of sun not completely poikilotherms ex. invertebrates, some plants, reptiles, amphibians
What are endotherms?
use internal processes to regulate temperatures by doing what ectotherms do as well as metabolism to control when it is outside thermal neutral zone, heat sweating, panting, shade, basking, skins,
ex. mammals, some invertebrates, few fish birds.
Homeotherms?
keep temp within a very narrow range, that humans are supposed to stay ex. all mammals and all birds
What is the thermal neutral zone?
broad range of temps warm and cold that an organism can be without turning on their internal engine, by fur etc over a large range.
ex. usually warm environments have very little range as they don’t need adaptations
What is burgmann’s rule
in cooler climate body size increases decreasing the surface area to volume ratio so that there is more volume inside in comparison to the area where they lost hat, fat increases and have a better fat storage capacity,
What is allen’s rule?
with bigger limbs and shorter appendages convection and circulation through fingers
