Exam 1 Flashcards
Popliteal
Back of knee
Antecubital
Front of elbow
Sural
Calf
Crural
Leg
Cervical
Neck
Otic
Ear
Orbit
Eye socket
Mental
Chin
Axillary
Armpit
Cranial
Head
Nasal
Nose
Brachium
Arm
Antebrachium
Forearm
Pectoral
Breast
Umbilical
Abdomen
Lumbar
Back
Inguinal
Groin
Pubic
Gentials
Coronal/frontal plane
Vertical plane
Divides body in posterior and anterior sections
transverse/horizontal/cross-sectional plane
horizontal
divides body into superior and inferior sections
midsaggital
vertical section equally divides structures
saggital/longitudinal plane
vertical
divides into R and L portions
oblique plane
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anterior/ventral
front/before/belly up
posterior/dorsal
back/behind
caudal
tail
cephalic
head
inferior
below
superior
above
smooth E.R.
•Network of tubules continuous with rough ER
•Its enzymes (integral proteins) function in
–Lipid metabolism; cholesterol and steroid-based hormone synthesis; making lipids of lipoproteins
–Absorption, synthesis, and transport of fats
–Detoxification of drugs, some pesticides, carcinogenic chemicals
–Converting glycogen to free glucose
–Storage and release of calcium
Rough E.R.
- External surface studded with ribosomes
- Manufactures all secreted proteins
- Synthesizes membrane integral proteins and phospholipids
- Assembled proteins move to ER interior, enclosed in vesicle, go to Golgi apparatus
femoral
thigh
patellar
front of knee
plantar
sole
calcaneal
heal
pollux
thumb
hallux
big toe
digit
fingers/toes
olecranal
back of elbow
distal
away from an attached base
proximal
toward an attached base
medial
towards the mid line
lateral
away from the mid line
gluteal
buttock
frontal
forehead
occipital
back of head
parietal layer
outermost layer
lines the wall of the body cavity
visceral layer
innermost layer
directly attached to the surface of the organ
regions
R hypochondraic/epigastric/L hypochondraic
R lumbar/ umbilical/L lumbar
R inguinal/ hypogastric/ L inguinal
parasaggital
vertical section produces nearly equal divisions
mitosis
cell reproduction
cell 23 pairs of chromosomes
splits into 2 identical daughter cells
interphase 1st phase
protein synthesis, growth, replication or organelles
replication of DNA
chromosomes is double stranded consists of 2 chromatids (1 original and 1 copy) held together by centromere
longest phase
prophase 2nd phase
nuclear envelope breaks down
chromosomes move into the middle
centrioles move to opposite sides
metaphase 3rd phase
chromosomes line up in the middle
spindle fibers extend to either pole and attach to the centromeres
anaphase 4th phase
separation of the chromosomes they are dragged to opposite poles
telophase 5 phase
cytokinesis partitions the cytoplasm
nuclear envelope beings to form in each cell
2 separate cells
golgi body
adjoins the ER
modifies/packages/ships/secretes by way of transport vesicles
Amino acids
building block of protein
organic compound contains C,H,O,N
articular cartilage
hyaline cartilage covering bone ends at movable joints
carpals
wrist bones
tarsals
ankle bones
actin
a contractile protein of muscle
apocrine sweat gland
confined to axillary and anogenital areas
• Sebum: sweat + fatty substances and proteins
• Ducts connect to hair follicles
• Functional from puberty onward
Epidermis
superficial skin region
• Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
• Cells of epidermis
• Keratinocytes—produce fibrous protein keratin
• Melanocytes
• 10–25% of cells in lower epidermis
• Produce pigment melanin
• Epidermal dendritic (Langerhans) cells—macrophages that help activate immune system
• Tactile (Merkel) cells—touch receptors
dermis
middle skin region • Strong, flexible connective tissue • Cells include fibroblasts, macrophages, and occasionally mast cells and white blood cells • Two layers: • Papillary • Reticular
Subcutaneous layer
deep to skin (not technically part of skin)
Mostly adipose tissue
Hypodermis (superficial fascia)—deepest region
Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Basale (Basal Layer)
Deepest epidermal layer firmly attached to the dermis
Single row of stem cells
Also called stratum germinativum: cells undergo rapid division
Journey from basal layer to surface
Takes 25–45 days
Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Spinosum (Prickly Layer)
Cells contain a weblike system of intermediate prekeratin filaments attached to desmosomes
Abundant melanin granules and dendritic cells
Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Granulosum (Granular Layer)
Thin; three to five cell layers in which the cells flatten
Keratohyaline and lamellated granules accumulate
Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Lucidum (Clear Layer)
- In thick skin
- Thin, transparent band superficial to the stratum granulosum
- A few rows of flat, dead keratinocytes
Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Corneum (Horny Layer)
- 20–30 rows of dead, flat, keratinized membranous sacs
- Three-quarters of the epidermal thickness
- Functions
- Protects from abrasion and penetration
- Waterproofs
- Barrier against biological, chemical, and physical assaults
Layers of the Dermis: Papillary Layer
- Papillary layer
- Areolar connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers and blood vessels
- Dermal papillae contain:
- Capillary loops
- Meissner’s corpuscles
- Free nerve endings
Layers of the Dermis: Reticular Layer
- Reticular layer
- ~80% of the thickness of dermis
- Collagen fibers provide strength and resiliency
- Elastic fibers provide stretch-recoil properties
hair root
Hair Follicle
• Hair follicle receptor (root hair plexus)
• Sensory nerve endings around each hair bulb
• Stimulated by bending a hair
• Arrector pili
• Smooth muscle attached to follicle
• Responsible for “goose bumps”
Hair Follicle
Hair Follicle
• Extends from the epidermal surface into dermis
• Two-layered wall: outer connective tissue root sheath, inner epithelial root sheath
• Hair bulb: expanded deep end
types of hair
- Vellus—pale, fine body hair of children and adult females
* Terminal—coarse, long hair of eyebrows, scalp, axillary, and pubic regions (and face and neck of males)
types of hair growth
- Growth phase (weeks to years) followed by regressive stage and resting phase (1–3 months)
- Growth phase varies (6–10 years in scalp, 3–4 months in eyebrows)
Ceruminous glands
in external ear canal; secrete cerumen
Sebaceous (Oil) Glands
- Widely distributed
- Most develop from hair follicles
- Become active at puberty
- Sebum
- Oily holocrine secretion
- Bactericidal
- Softens hair and skin
Eccrine (merocrine) sweat glands
abundant on palms, soles, and forehead
• Sweat: 99% water, NaCl, vitamin C, antibodies, dermcidin, metabolic wastes
• Ducts connect to pores
• Function in thermoregulation
sudoriferous gland
sweat gland
2 types Eccrine and apocrine
mammary gland
Specialized apocrine glands
Keratinocytes
produce fibrous protein keratin
Melanocytes
- 10–25% of cells in lower epidermis
* Produce pigment melanin
Epidermal dendritic (Langerhans) cells
macrophages that help activate immune system
Carotene
pigment contribute to skin color
Yellow to orange, most obvious in the palms and soles
functions of skin
• Physical/mechanical barriers
• Keratin and glycolipids block most water and water- soluble substances
• Limited penetration of skin by lipid-soluble substances, plant oleoresins (e.g., poison ivy), organic solvents, salts of heavy metals, some drugs
• Biological barriers
• Dendritic cells, macrophages, and DNA
Functions of the Integumentary System
- Body temperature regulation
• ~500 ml/day of routine insensible perspiration (at normal body temperature)
• At elevated temperature, dilation of dermal vessels and increased sweat gland activity (sensible perspirations) cool the body - Cutaneous sensations
• Temperature, touch, and pain
Functions of the Integumentary System - Metabolic functions
• Synthesis of vitamin D precursor and collagenase
• Chemical conversion of carcinogens and some hormones - Blood reservoir—up to 5% of body’s blood volume
- Excretion—nitrogenous wastes and salt in sweat
Epithelia: Simple Squamous
- Two other locations
- Endothelium
- The lining of lymphatic vessels, blood vessels, and heart
- Mesothelium
- The epithelium of serous membranes in the ventral body cavity
Epithelia: Stratified Cuboidal
- Quite rare in body
- Found in some sweat and mammary glands
- Typically two cell layers thick
Epithelia: Stratified Columnar
- Limited distribution in body
- Small amounts in pharynx, male urethra, and lining some glandular ducts
- Also occurs at transition areas between two other types of epithelia
Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue
- Cells have polarity—apical (upper, free) and basal (lower, attached) surfaces
• Apical surfaces may bear microvilli (e.g., brush border of intestinal lining) or cilia (e.g., lining of trachea)
• Noncellular basal lamina of glycoprotein and collagen lies adjacent to basal surface - Are composed of closely packed cells
• Continuous sheets held together by tight junctions and desmosomes - Supported by a connective tissue reticular lamina (under the basal lamina)
- Avascular but innervated
- High rate of regeneration
Connective Tissue
- Most abundant and widely distributed tissue type
- Four classes
- Connective tissue proper
- Cartilage
- Bone tissue
- Blood
Major Functions of Connective Tissue
- Binding and support
- Protection
- Insulation
- Transportation (blood)
Cytoplasm
intracellular fluid containing organelles
Located between plasma membrane and nucleus
Diffusion
passive transport
• Simple diffusion
• Carrier- and channel-mediated facilitated diffusion
• Osmosis
Filtration
Usually across capillary walls
Osmosis
passive process
Movement of solvent (e.g., water) across selectively permeable membrane
• Occurs when water concentration different on the two sides of a membrane
– Isotonic
Solution with same non-penetrating solute concentration as cytosol
– Hypertonic
Solution with higher non-penetrating solute concentration than cytosol
– Hypotonic
Solution with lower non-penetrating solute concentration than cytosol
Carrier-Mediated Facilitated Diffusion
Transmembrane integral proteins are carriers
Transport specific polar molecules (e.g., sugars and amino acids) too large for channels
• Binding of substrate causes shape change in carrier then passage across membrane
• Limited by number of carriers present
Passive Processes: Facilitated Diffusion
• Certain lipophobic molecules (e.g., glucose, amino acids, and ions) transported passively by
– Binding to protein carriers
– Moving through water-filled channels
Active Transport
• Requires carrier proteins (solute pumps)
– Bind specifically and reversibly with substance
• Moves solutes against concentration gradient
– Requires energy
Sodium-Potassium Pump
• Na+ and K+ channels allow slow leakage down concentration gradients
• Na+-K+ pump works as antiporter
– Pumps against Na+ and K+ gradients to maintain high intracellular K+ concentration and high extracellular Na+ concentration
• Maintains electrochemical gradients essential for functions of muscle and nerve tissues
• Allows all cells to maintain fluid volume
– Exocytosis
transport out of cell
• Usually activated by cell-surface signal or change in membrane voltage
• Substance enclosed in secretory vesicle
– Hormone secretion, neurotransmitter release, mucus secretion, ejection of wastes
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
?
Phagocytosis
cellular eating
Pseudopods engulf solids and bring them into cell’s interior
– Form vesicle called phagosome
Pinocytosis
cellular drinking
Pinocytosis (fluid-phase endocytosis)
– Plasma membrane infolds, bringing extracellular fluid and dissolved solutes inside cell
Endocytosis
• Involve formation of protein-coated vesicles
• Often receptor mediated, therefore very selective
• Some pathogens also hijack for transport into cell
• Once vesicle is inside cell it may
– Fuse with lysosome
– Undergo transcytosis
Microfilaments
• Thinnest of cytoskeletal elements
• Dynamic strands of protein actin
• Each cell-unique arrangement of strands
• Dense web attached to cytoplasmic side of plasma membrane-terminal web
– Gives strength, compression resistance
• Involved in cell motility, change in shape, endocytosis and exocytosis
Intermediate Filaments
- Tough, insoluble, ropelike protein fibers
- Composed of tetramer fibrils
- Resist pulling forces on cell; attach to desmosomes
- E.g., neurofilaments in nerve cells; keratin filaments in epithelial cells
Microtubules
- Largest of cytoskeletal elements; dynamic hollow tubes; most radiate from centrosome
- Composed of protein subunits called tubulins
- Determine overall shape of cell and distribution of organelles
- Mitochondria, lysosomes, secretory vesicles attach to microtubules; moved throughout cell by motor proteins
Ribosomes
- Granules containing protein and rRNA
- Site of protein synthesis
- Free ribosomes synthesize soluble proteins that function in cytosol or other organelles
- Membrane-bound ribosomes (forming rough ER) synthesize proteins to be incorporated into membranes, lysosomes, or exported from cell
Mitochondria
• Double-membrane structure with inner shelflike cristae
• Provide most of cell’s ATP via aerobic cellular respiration
– Requires oxygen
• Contain their own DNA, RNA, ribosomes
• Similar to bacteria; capable of cell division called fission
Peroxisomes
- Membranous sacs containing powerful oxidases and catalases
- Detoxify harmful or toxic substances
- Catalysis and synthesis of fatty acids
- Neutralize dangerous free radicals
Endomembrane System
• Overall function
– Produce, degrade, store, and export biological molecules
– Degrade potentially harmful substances
• Includes ER, golgi apparatus, secretory vesicles, lysosomes, nuclear and plasma membranes
Cytoskeleton
• Elaborate series of rods throughout cytosol; proteins link rods to other cell structures – Three types • Microfilaments • Intermediate filaments • Microtubules
Centrosome and Centrioles
• “Cell center” near nucleus
• Generates microtubules; organizes mitotic spindle
• Contains paired centrioles
– Organelles; small tubes formed by microtubules
• Centrioles form basis of cilia and flagella
Chromatin
- Threadlike strands of DNA (30%), histone proteins (60%), and RNA (10%)
- Arranged in fundamental units called nucleosomes
- Histones pack long DNA molecules; involved in gene regulation
- Condense into barlike bodies called chromosomes when cell starts to divide
Cilia
Cilia movements alternate between power stroke and recovery stroke
– Contain microtubules and motor molecules
– Cilia move substances across cell surfaces
Lysosomes
- Spherical membranous bags containing digestive enzymes
- Digest ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins
- Degrade nonfunctional organelles
- Metabolic functions, e.g., break down and release glycogen
- Destroy cells in injured or nonuseful tissue (autolysis)
- Break down bone to release Ca2+
Nucleus
- Largest organelle; genetic library with blueprints for nearly all cellular proteins
- Responds to signals; dictates kinds and amounts of proteins synthesized
- Most cells uninucleate; skeletal muscle cells, bone destruction cells, and some liver cells are multinucleate; red blood cells are anucleate
- Three regions/structures
Nucleoli
• Dark-staining spherical bodies within nucleus
• Involved in rRNA synthesis and ribosome subunit assembly
• Associated with nucleolar organizer regions
– Contains DNA coding for rRNA
• Usually one or two per cell
Nuclear Envelope
- Double-membrane barrier; encloses nucleoplasm
- Outer layer continuous with rough ER and bears ribosomes
- Inner lining (nuclear lamina) maintains shape of nucleus; scaffold to organize DNA
- Pores allow substances to pass; nuclear pore complex line pores; regulates transport of large molecules into and out of nucleus
nuclear pores
• Pores allow substances to pass; nuclear pore complex line pores; regulates transport of large molecules into and out of nucleus
Flagella
–Whiplike, motile extensions on surfaces of certain cells
–Contain microtubules and motor molecules
–Longer flagella propel whole cells (tail of sperm)
Osteoblasts
(bone-forming cells)
Osteoclasts
(bone-destroying cells)
Cells that break down (resorb) bone matrix
Osteocytes
Mature bone cells
Perforating (Volkmann’s) canals
- At right angles to the central canal
- Connects blood vessels and nerves of the periosteum and central canal
- Lacunae—small cavities that contain osteocytes
- Canaliculi—hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal
Haversian system, or osteon—structural unit
- Lamellae
- Weight-bearing
- Column-like matrix tubes
- Central (Haversian) canal
- Contains blood vessels and nerves
rickets
Homeostatic Imbalances
Rickets (childhood disease) causes bowed legs and other bone deformities
• Cause: vitamin D deficiency or insufficient dietary calcium
Osteomalacia
Homeostatic Imbalances
Calcium salts not deposited
Osteoporosis
- Loss of bone mass—bone resorption outpaces deposit
- Spongy bone of spine and neck of femur become most susceptible to fracture
- Risk factors
- Lack of estrogen, calcium or vitamin D; petite body form; immobility; low levels of TSH; diabetes mellitus
Osteoporosis: Treatment and Prevention
- Calcium, vitamin D, and fluoride supplements
- Weight-bearing exercise throughout life
- Hormone (estrogen) replacement therapy (HRT) slows bone loss
- Some drugs (Fosamax, SERMs, statins) increase bone mineral density
Paget’s Disease
- Excessive and haphazard bone formation and breakdown, usually in spine, pelvis, femur, or skull
- Pagetic bone has very high ratio of spongy to compact bone and reduced mineralization
- Unknown cause (possibly viral)
- Treatment includes calcitonin and biphosphonates
Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture
- Hematoma forms
• Torn blood vessels hemorrhage
• Clot (hematoma) forms
• Site becomes swollen, painful, and inflamed
Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture - Fibrocartilaginous callus forms
• Phagocytic cells clear debris
• Osteoblasts begin forming spongy bone within 1 week
• Fibroblasts secrete collagen fibers to connect bone ends
• Mass of repair tissue now called fibrocartilaginous callus
Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture - Bony callus formation
• New trabeculae form a bony (hard) callus
• Bony callus formation continues until firm union is formed in ~2 months
Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture - Bone remodeling
• In response to mechanical stressors over several months
• Final structure resembles original
• Compound (open) fracture
bone ends penetrate the skin
acromion
shoulder point
abdominal
adomen area
sternal
center of chest/bone
sacral
inferior to the lumbar
superior to the perineal
scapular
scapula/back
gastric
stomach
types of burns
Heat, electricity, radiation, certain chemicals
Burn = (tissue damage, denatured protein, cell death)
Immediate threat: Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance, leading to renal shutdown and circulatory shock
Rule of Nines
• Used to estimate the volume of fluid loss from burns
Severity of Burns
- Critical if:
- > 25% of the body has second-degree burns
- > 10% of the body has third-degree burns
- Face, hands, or feet bear third-degree burns
Monosaccharides
1 sugar • Monomers of carbohydrates • Important monosaccharides – Pentose sugars • Ribose and deoxyribose – Hexose sugars • Glucose (blood sugar)
Lipids
• Contain C, H, O (less than in carbohydrates), and sometimes P • Insoluble in water • Main types: – Neutral fats or triglycerides – Phospholipids – Steroids – Eicosanoids
Phospholipids
• Modified triglycerides:
– Glycerol + two fatty acids and A phosphorus (P) - containing group
• “Head” and “tail” regions have different properties
• Important in cell membrane structure
Steroids
• Steroids—interlocking four-ring structure
• Cholesterol, vitamin D, steroid hormones, and bile salts
• Most important steroid
– Cholesterol
• Important in cell membranes, vitamin D synthesis, steroid hormones, and bile salts
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
• Four bases:
– Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), and Uracil (U)
• Pentose sugar is ribose
• Single-stranded molecule mostly active outside the nucleus
• Three varieties of RNA carry out the DNA orders for protein synthesis
– Messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
• Utilizes four nitrogen bases:
– Purines: Adenine (A), Guanine (G)
– Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C), and Thymine (T)
– Base-pair rule – each base pairs with its complementary base
• A always pairs with T; G always pairs with C
• Double-stranded helical molecule (double helix) in the cell nucleus
• Pentose sugar is deoxyribose
• Provides instructions for protein synthesis
• Replicates before cell division ensuring genetic continuity
Nucleic Acids
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
– Largest molecules in the body
• Contain C, O, H, N, and P
• Polymers
– Monomer = nucleotide
• Composed of nitrogen base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group
• Lipoproteins
– Transport fats in the blood
– Cholesterol
Most important steroid
Important in cell membranes, vitamin D synthesis, steroid hormones, and bile salts
glycogen
Polysaccharides
fat storage in the body
glycerol
modified simple sugar (sugar alcohol)
Triglycerides = Composed of three fatty acids bonded to A glycerol molecule
greenstick fracture
bone breaks incompletely
only 1 side of the shaft breaks the other side bends
common in children
Epiphyseal plate
- Epiphyseal plate cartilage organizes into four important functional zones:
- Proliferation (growth)
- Hypertrophic
- Calcification
- Ossification (osteogenic)
trabecular/spongy bone
internal bone
honeycomb of small needle like or flat pieces
filled with yellow or red bone marrow
Glandular Epithelia
- A gland is one or more cells that makes and secretes an aqueous fluid
- Classified by:
- Site of product release—endocrine or exocrine
- Relative number of cells forming the gland—unicellular (e.g., goblet cells) or multicellular
glycolipids
block most water and water- soluble substances
– Mediastinum
- Contains pericardial cavity
* Surrounds thoracic organs
stratified squamous epithelium
Epidermis is made of Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
Lacunae
small cavities that contain osteocytes
• Canaliculi
hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal
calcium phosphates
• Common salts in body
Collagen
(white fibers)
• Strongest and most abundant type
• Provides high tensile strength
• Diaphysis (shaft)
Structure of a Long Bone
Compact bone collar surrounds medullary (marrow) cavity
• Medullary cavity in adults contains fat (yellow marrow)
• Epiphyses
Structure of a Long Bone
Expanded ends
• Spongy bone interior
• Epiphyseal line (remnant of growth plate)
• Articular (hyaline) cartilage on joint surfaces
• Endosteum
Membranes of Bone
• Delicate membrane on internal surfaces of bone
• Also contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts
• Periosteum
\Membranes of Bone Outer fibrous layer • Inner osteogenic layer Osteoblasts (bone-forming cells) • Osteoclasts (bone-destroying cells) • Osteogenic cells (stem cells) • Nerve fibers, nutrient blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels enter the bone via nutrient foramina • Secured to underlying bone by Sharpey’s fibers
- Intramembranous ossification
- Membrane bone develops from fibrous membrane
* Forms flat bones, e.g. clavicles and cranial bones
- Endochondral ossification
- Cartilage (endochondral) bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage
- Forms most of the rest of the skeleton
- Uses hyaline cartilage models
- Requires breakdown of hyaline cartilage prior to ossification
• Cutaneous membrane
skin
• Serous membrane or serosa
– Thin, double-layered membranes
• Parietal serosa lines internal body cavity walls
• Visceral serosa covers internal organs (viscera)
– Layers separated by slit-like cavity filled with serous fluid
• Fluid secreted by both layers of membrane
lactose
disaccharide
Too large to pass through cell membranes
ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm
- Primary germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm
- Formed early in embryonic development
- Specialize to form the four primary tissues
- Nerve tissue arises from ectoderm
- Muscle and connective tissues arise from mesoderm
- Epithelial tissues arise from all three germ layers
Mesenchyme
embryonic connective tissue
• Gives rise to all other connective tissues
• Gel-like ground substance with fibers and star-shaped mesenchymal cells
• Histones
• Histones pack long DNA molecules; involved in gene regulation
• Condense into barlike bodies called chromosomes when cell starts to divide
found in chromatin
glucose
• Functions of carbohydrates
– Major source of cellular fuel (e.g., glucose)
• Spongy (cancellous) bone
• Honeycomb of trabeculae
• Hydroxyapatites
- Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts)
- 65% of bone by mass
- Mainly calcium phosphate crystals
- Responsible for hardness and resistance to compression
callus
- New trabeculae form a bony (hard) callus
* Bony callus formation continues until firm union is formed in ~2 months
