Exam 1 Flashcards
Phonology
The study of sounds and how sounds are combined to make meaningful words and sentences
Speech Sound Disorders
Umbrella term to refer to disorders that may be found in clients who have difficulty producing speech sounds
Used interchangeably with articulation and phonological disorder.
Can be mild to profound
Most of the children- unknown cause, functional, idiopathic
Articulation Disorders
A motor based disorder (production based speech sound disorder) secondary to a child’s inability produce the sound or sound
Phonological Disorders
A rule based disorder- reflect the fact that the child has a lack of knowledge regarding where to appropriately use sounds that they can
produce. A collapse in phonemic contrast or a neutralization of phonemic contrast
A child can have both _____ based and _________based impairments- it is not black and white
rule
motor
______% of school age children have a speech sound disorder
5%
_______% of preschoolers have a SSD
10-15%
Frequently SSDs coexist with a
language disorder - assess all areas
Speech
consists of organized set or system of sounds that are used to convey meaning
Speech production is not all that helps us to understand speech,________________play a crucial role in mood, age, gender, dialect, stress prosody
suprasegmentals
Phonemes:
The minimal sound elements that represent and distinguish language units. Don’t have meaning in and of themselves but make distinction in meaning
between words, such as minimal pairs (cat/fat)
Allophone
Individual variant of a phoneme. Every time you produce a sound it can be produced a little differently such as the initial /p/ compared to the final /p/
in /pop/ one is not released the other is (allophonic variation).
Allophonic Variation
In another language the allophonic variations in our language can be two different phonemes in another language.
Morphemes:
Smallest unit of language that carries meaning, is made up of a combination of phonemes. Bound morphemes vs. free morphemes
Bound morphemes
suffixes and prefixes that attach to a word
Free morphemes:
a whole word that cannot be linguistically broken down into smaller units
Allophone:
a variant or alternate form of a phoneme within a language
Phonemic Transcription:
Always used it slashes // - the abstract description of a sound
Phonetic Transcription:
The actual production of speech said by a person, enclosed in brackets [ ]
Narrow transcription
is when you use diacritic markings vs broad transcription
4 Sub-systems of speech
- Respiration: Lungs, airway, diaphragm, provides air through the VFs, driving force that causes the VFs to vibrate
e. g. ALS, Cerebral palsy - Resonance: modification of the voice as it travels through the pharynx, oral, and nasal cavity
Based on the modification of the size and shape of the resonating cavities
e.g. Cleft palate - Phonation
Hyperadduction- strain-strangled vocal quality
Hypoadduction- breathy vocal quality - Articulation : how the sounds are shaped through the various structures in the oral cavity
Tongue, teeth, palate, etc
To have normal speech one must also have adequate _____________for both input and output of speech, and an intact nervous system for adequate control
and integration of all of the subsystems
hearing sensitivity
Consonant Production:
Place: where along the vocal tract the • consonant is formed
Manner: how it is formed
Voice: whether the vocal folds are in vibration or not
Manner of Articulation:
• Stops: formed by complete closure of the vocal tract. The air builds up behind the closure and is then released and produces a burst of noise. Shortest in
duration of all phonemes. Also known as stop plosives.
- Fricatives: continuous airflow through a narrow or constricted channel that results in a hissing or turbulent quality
- Affricates: have a stop and fricative component, begin as a stop and released as a fricative
- Nasals: lower the velum (soft palate) so the velopharyngeal floor is open and the air travels through the nasal cavity
- Glides: Semi-vowels, a transitioning from a partly constricted state to a more open state of whatever vowel follows it
- Liquids: the vocal tract is obstructed slightly more than vowels, oral passage is constricted but wider than it is during the production of other consonants
- /l/-lateral /r/- rhotic
- retroflex vs. bunched /r/
Place of Articulation:
- Bilabial: produced by both lips /b,p,m,w/
- Labiodental: produced with the lips and teeth, upper front teeth over lower lip /f,v/
- Linguadental/interdental: tongue tip between the front teeth, voiced and voiceless th
- Lingua-alveolar/alveolar: tongue tip and alveolar ridge
- Linguapalatal/palatal: tongue bladeand hard palate
- Linguavelar/velar: tongue dorsum and soft palate
- Glottal: vibration of air at the level of the VFs, /h/
Voicing
whether the VFs are in vibration or not
• Voiced: b, d, g, x, v, m, l, r, w, y
• Voiceless: glottis is open, p, t, k, s, voiceless th, f, h, sh, ch
Cognate Pairs:
two sounds are alike in place and manner, differ only in voice /p-b/
Distinctive Features
identifying the presence of absence of the feature, binary system with (+ and - if present or not)
Vocalic
do not have a marked constriction in the vocal tract, all vowels –also /l/ and /r/ can also be considered vocalic
Consonantal:
do have a marked constriction in the vocal tract, all the consonants except the /h, w, and j/
High:
made with the tongue elevated and above the neutral position when producing /schwa/- entire tongue is elevated above the neutral position
Back
tongue is retracted from the neutral position /schwa/— k, g, ng
Low
tongue is lower than neutral position, there is only one such phoneme /h/
Anterior:
produced more forward then the palatal /sh/– w, f, v, vth, vlth, t, d, s, z, n, l, p, b, m
Coronal:
just the tongue blade is elevated above the neutral position, vth, vlth, t, d, s, z, n, l, sh, dj, r, ch, j
Round:
when producing sounds with lips rounded or protruded – two consonants /r, w/
Tense:
sounds made with a relatively greater degree of muscle tension or contraction at the root of the tongue- tense sounds are mostly voiceless- p, t, k, ch, j, f, vlth, s, sh, l
Continuant:
sounds made with an incomplete constriction- glides, fricatives, and liquids
Nasal:
sounds that are resonated in the nasal cavity – m, n, ng
Strident:
sounds that force the airstream through a small constriction- fricatives and affricates
Sonorant:
sounds that force the airstream through a small constriction- fricatives and affricates
Interrupted:
a complete closure or blockage of air - stops and affricates
Lateral:
/l/ is the only one, tongue is placed on the alveolar ridge and the air flows laterally along the sides of the tongue
Voice
sounds produced with VF vibration
Obstruents
consonants produced by complete closure or narrow constriction- stops, fricatives, and affricates
Sibilants:
sounds produced with high frequency, the have a more strident quality and a longer duration - s, z, sh, dj, ch j
Approximants:
a sound is produced by complete closure or narrow constriction- stops, fricatives, and affricates
Rhotic
/r/- sounds with /r/ coloring
Syllabics
any sound that can stand as the nucleus of a syllable- all of the vowels are syllabic and 4 consonants - l, n, m, r
Vowels
Monophthongs
(one sound) pure vowels and have a single articulatory position
Vowels
Diphthongs
(two sounds) quick gliding of 2 simple vowels which cannot be perceptually seperated
Vowels
Syllabics
vowels and diphthongs are the carriers of syllables, while consonants and consonant clusters attach to vowels to form various syllable shapes.
Because of their syllable forming status, vowels are also termed syllabics
Vowel Production:
Tongue position
Lip rounding
Tenseness
Phoneme Classification (syllable level) Onset:
the consonant or cluster that initiates a syllable
Phoneme Classification (syllable level) Nucleus:
the vowel or diphthong that follows the initial consonant or cluster
Phoneme Classification (syllable level) Coda:
the phoneme or cluster that finishes or closes a syllable and follows the nucleus
Phoneme Classification (syllable level) Rhyme
the nucleus and coda
e.g. Glasses- 2 syllables
onset for 1st syllable is gl, nucleus is a, no coda, rhyme a
2nd syllable- onset s, nucleus e, rhyme [ez]
Phonological Processes
simplification that a person produces that affect an entire class of sounds. Occurs in normal developing children as well as those that have a disorder
Syllable structure processes
sound changes that modify the syllabic structure of words as the child attempts to produce the adult target
Unstressed Syllable Deletion
(weak syllable deletion)- the child omits one or more syllables in a multisyllabic word [me do] for tomato
Reduplication:
(doubling) - totally or partially repeats a syllable in a multisyllabic word
- total: [baba] for bottle
- partial: [bada] for bottle
Diminutization
add an /I/ at the end of the word- cuppy “cupi” for cup
Epenthesis:
insert the schwa between two phonemes of a cluster
Final Consonant Deletion:
deletes the final consonant or cluster at the end of the word
Initial Consonant Deletion:
delete the initial consonant or cluster of a word [ap] for cop- this is very rare for normal developing children
Cluster Reduction
reducing one or more phonemes of a cluster
total: [ap] for stop
partial: [tap] for stop
Stopping
stopping fricative or affricates e.g. pat for fat. more common in word initial position then final
Deaffrication
producing either a stop or fricative for an affricate [tEr] for chair [dab] for job
Velar fronting
replace a more front sound with a velar sound (back sound) t for k, d for g, and n for -ing. [tap] for /kap/
Depalatalization:
substitution of an alveolar fricative for a palatal fricative [sEl] for shell or [beIz] for beige
Backing
replacing back sound for more anterior sounds, presents with more severe phonological disorder –> g for d, k for t, h for s, [kap] for /tap/
Liquid gliding:
substituting a glide for a liquid –/w/ or /j/ for /l/ or /r/ –> wabbit for rabbit
Vocalization (vowelization):
substitution of a vowel for a syllabic liquid or syllabic nasal –> budu for butter, simpo for simple
Assimilation
one sound in a word influences another sound in a word to change
Labial assimilation
one sound in a word changes because of a labial sound in a word
Velar assimilation:
a non-velar sound is changed to a velar because of another velar in the word
Nasal assimilation:
a non-nasal is changed to nasal because of the influence of another nasal
Alveolar assimilation
a non-alveolar is changed to an alveolar because of the influence of an alveolar
Prevocalic voicing
a voiceless sound preceding a vowel becomes voiced
stops are most affected
Postvocalic devoicing:
a voiced obstruent following a vowel becomes devoiced
Progressive assimilation
a sound previous to the changed sound causes the change (left to right)
Regressive assimilation
right to left-
Continguous:
the sound that changes and the sound that influences the change are adjacent to eachother
Noncontinguous:
the changed sound and the sound that affect the change are separated by an intervening sound
Articulation disorder:
motor based, more mild, better speech intelligibility because there is not a collapse in phonemic contrast, there is usually more of a sound distortion
Phonological disorder:
rule based disorder, collapse in phonological contrast, pattern based
Segmentals
actual sounds or phonemes
Suprasegmentals:
Stress Intonation Loudness PItch Juncture Rate
Stress:
degree of effort placed on a part of the utterance, usually carried by the vowel of a syllable. Produced with greater intensity, longer duration, and higher
pitch. In English stress can vary but in other languages it is fixed and always on the same syllable of the words. E.g. stress of “convict” meaning changes in english
based on where the stress is
Intonation:
vocal contour of an utterance. The way that the fundamental frequency changes as you produce different segments of an utterance
Loudness
the intensity produced, the amount of effort produced
Pitch level:
fundamental frequency of a speaker
Juncture:
the vocal punctuation, combination of intonation and pausing to mark distinctions in speech
Speaking rate
measured in words per second of syllables per second. Varies among speakers, if too fast it will affect speech intelligibility
Coarticulation
the way different phonemes as they are grouped together affect the way a sound is produced. as you produce sounds, preceding and following
sounds influence each other. Phonetic context helps you to know why a sound is produced a certain way based on the other sounds in the word
-Misarticulations are often inconsistent for this reason because it may depend in the phonetic context whether a not a person can produce the phoneme
Aerodynamic Aspects of Speech
air pressure, flow, and volume affects and is vital to speech. Pressure builds up, moves from greater to lesser pressure.
Pressure builds up under VFs until then are blown open and air move egressively to outside the oral cavity.
Voiced consonants and nasal sounds are produced with less intraoral pressure why?
the vocal folds vibrate and only approximate, resulting in minimal subglottal
air pressure. The velopharyngeal port is open to let the vibrating sound pass through the nasal cavity. The oral cavity is constricted as in the production of voicedstops. The addition of nasal resonation results in the characteristic perceptual quality of nasal sounds.
Children generally speak with __________intraoral pressure than adults
greater
Egressive air flow:
from inside out
Changes in the rate of airflow, its volume and its pressure results in the necessary modifications to produce different speech sounds.
3 Levels of valving:
- Vocal folds
- Velopharyngeal mechanism through oral or nasal cavity
- Constriction of the oral cavity (articulators and amount of closure)
3 fundamental physical variables
- Frequency: rate of vibration, faster the vibration the higher the pitch
- Amplitude: strength of the vibration, greater amplitude produces louder voice
- Duration: amount of time VFs are in vibration
Spectrum:
each phoneme has a different spectra (visual pattern of a sound)
Who has the lowest fundamental frequency and why?
Men, the have the longest vocal tract and frequency is related to length
Children have the highest fundamental frequency
Vowels:
most intense, low to mid frequencies and longest in duration
Glides & liquids:
next below the vowel in terms of intensity, have a low to mid frequency, and glides have a longer duration than liquids
Strident Fricatives and affricates
moderate intensity and high frequency, fricatives have longer duration than affricates
Nasals:
produced with weak intensity and short duration and they vary in frequency
Nonstrident fricatives
/f/ /v/ /vlth/ /vth/, weak in intensity, moderate duration,
Phonological Theories:
scientific ideas, theories of how we develop phonological properties
Linear Phonological Theories
thought to be segments of sound or a bundle of independent features, phonological rules are applied sequentially and the linear
theories do not account for prosody.
Generative Phonology
based on the idea that the interaction of sounds and units of language can be described by phonological rules. Most widely studied
theory. Rules can either be context free or context sensitive.
-Context free: regardless of the context of the sound a child always produces a stop
Natural Phonology
taken from developmental, cross-linguistic, and studies of sound change in a language. Classifies sounds as marked (unnatural) and
unmarked (more natural)
-Unmarked sounds: sounds that the child develops earlier, also sounds that are used over different languages (more common to most languages). Sounds
we naturally have as we develop
‣ e.g. Final consonant deletion- natural process because it is natural to produce an open syllable
‣ e.g. Voiceless stop- natural produce, easy, occurs across language
-Marked: unique to a language, unnatural, developed later and they require environmental input to learn
‣ e.g. Voiced obstruent
Nonlinear Phonological Theories:
organized hierarchically and do include prosody
Autosegmental Theory:
the phonological features are divided into parallel tiers of quasi-independent sequences (tiers are inner-connected) the phonological
patterns evolve from connections across these tiers. Auto-segment refers to a unit in a given tier
Metrical Theory:
puts a lot of emphasis on stress and syllable structure of speech (rhythm). It organizes phonological units in hierarchies and the stress
assignments are made at the different levels of the hierarchy
Feature Geometry Theory
arranged hierarchically where syllables consonants and vowels are organized into nodes
• prosodic (root) node • - suprasegmental
• laryngeal node - voicing
• supra-laryngeal node - place of articulation (oral cavity)
• articulators - lips, tongue blade, etc
Optimality Theory
an innate mechanism that has constraints which are used to select the most optimal output from a set of alternatives
Input: cat
generator that generates possibilities: cat, cats, cattle, at
Evaluator: chooses most optimal word that matches the input, brain picks the most optimal word that is like the input
Prelinguistic
infant vocalizations and speech perception
Why are they not entirely linguistic?
Because their speech doesn’t have a meaning or achieve a desired effect
There is a ___________ between prelinguistic infant productions (babbling) and first words/ talking
positive relationship
Not babbling-
reason for intervention
Infant’s Auditory Perception
• Humans are able to perceive sounds when?
before birth, 16 weeks ‣ gestation at 500 Hz
‣ 27 weeks 500 Hz and 250 Hz
‣ 33-35 weeks 250 Hz, 500 Hz, 1000 Hz, and 3000 Hz
‣ By 3 days of age infant’s can distinguish mother’s voice from a stranger and show a preference for the mother’s voice
‣ Prefer child directed speech (motherese) over adult-directed speech
‣ As children reach the first year of like their ability to discriminate non-native sounds diminishes
• Not only do fetuses hear sounds but also: perceive differences in sounds
• Research to back it up: Nursery rhyme, heart rate change when mother speaks not when others
Infant Developmental Stages
Stage 1: Phonation stage:
child produces mostly reflexive vocalizations, burping, crying, coughing, sneezing. They produce some non-reflexive non-reflexive
vocalizations resembling syllabic nasals such as cooing, screaming, vocal play
-Birth - 1 month
Infant Developmental Stages
Stage 2: Cooing and Gooing
primarily producing back vowels and velars in CV combinations. Primative syllable sequences because they don’t have timing for
consonant and vocalic segments
-2-3 months
Infant Developmental Stages
Stage 3: Expansion/exploration stage:
vocal play increases, squeals, growls, raspberries. Marginal babbling appears which are CV and VC combinations. The
vowels have more adult-like resonance and they produce more consistent consonants with specific placement
-4-6 months
Infant Developmental Stages
Stage 4: Canonical babbling
(reduplicated babbling): some may sounds like real words, assess when they say it to see if they are using it with meaning (mama,
dada) there has to be meaning for it to be a true word. They are producing mostly stops nasals and glides and lax vowels. they start dropping the velars and
producing more fronted sounds
‣ 7-9 months
Infant Developmental Stages
Stage 5:Variegated babbling
stop reduplicating and sting together CV combinations (madaga) vowel use increased significantly and intonation arises so they
start sounding more like they are talking- string syllables together with intonation
-10-12 months
Reflexive vocalizations
automatic responses reflecting the physical state of the infant including crying, coughing, burping, and hiccuping
Non-reflexive vocalizations:
voluntary productions including cooing, babbling, and playful screaming and yelling
Babbling:
important developmental milestone, crossover of babbling and first words
Conversational babbling/modulated babbling/jargon
stringing CV combinations together with intonation
Most prevalent consonants:
h d b m t w j k g s n m p (nasals, glides, alveolar stops, labial stops)
Less frequently occurring consonant-like sounds:
affricates, fricatives, r, l, -ing
Most frequently produced consonants according to place of articulation were:
alveolars, labials and velars
Most frequently produced consonants according to manner of articulation
nasals, glides, stops
__________ consonants occurred most frequently
Voiced
Most predominant syllable structures:
V, CV, VCV, and CVCV
Are there differences between the babbling of children who are typically developing and those who have additional learning needs?
absolutely, hearing impaired sounds very different (less frequent, occurs later, use fewer syllables, less likely to produce reduplicated babbling) and late talkers (babble later and produce less
reduplicated babbling)
Transition from babbling to meaningful speech
crossover between babbling to true words, can use both in the same utterance
Protowords:
words aren’t true words because they don’t have a recognizable adult model but are used consistently and meaningfully by the infant (yaya for light)
and usually used with a gesture
• Aka: vocables, phonetically consistent forms, invented words, and quasi-words
2 indicators that designate production of “true words”:
- have to have a phonetic relationship to the adult word (sound similar)
- have to be used consistently in the presence of a particular situation or object
First words single or reduplicated syllables characterized by
stops, nasals, and glides
Progressive idioms (advanced forms):
word that have an advanced pronunciation in comparison to the child’s current phonological system or production of other
words
Regressive idioms (frozen forms):
opposite, child’s static or unchanging pronunciation of words despite his or her more advanced phonological skills (nicknames, or
become habit) pets names, family names that are said a certain way despite being able to say it correctly
Metathesis
switch sounds of different syllables (e.g. cinnamon)
Development of the sound system:
every child is different, there is great variability
• Children’s pronunciation of their first 50 words appears to be constrained by their physiology, ambient language, and child-specific factor
By second birthday producing more words, phonetic inventory has greatly increased.
Babbling, jargon, and protowords become extinguished and the words
become more phonetically like the adult target.
Sound Acquisition p. 169
By age 3-0: h, w, m, n, b, p, f
• By age 4-0: d, t, k, g, y, -ing
• By age 6-0: l j, ch, sh, v errors r, th, s, z,
• By age 8-0 to 9-0: should be producing adult model of all sounds
• Children’s phonetic inventory was significantly larger in the initial position because they produce naturally more open syllable words
Consonant Cluster Development:
Studies show that by age 4-0 75% of children could correctly produce s+ stops, s+ nasal, stop+liquid except for gr, and a stop+w in the initial position
Mastery of 3-member clusters and clusters containing a fricative member continued to develop until age ___
8
Master of clusters chart ages 4-9 p. 175
Early on cluster reduction is more likely, as they get older cluster _________ is more likely
simplification
By 18 months of age.. only the ___________ were produced with at least 70% accuracy
/a, u, i, ‘hut’/
At 2 years of age…all vowels and diphthongs were produced with at least 80% accuracy except the
stressed and unstressed er
By age 3…all vowels and diphthongs were produced with at least _______________
100% accuracy
Common Error Types:
Nasals
Denasalization of /m/ and /n/ (the replacement of a nasal consonant by a non-nasal sound made in the same place of articulation such as [doz] for nose
• Final /n/ is substituted by [m] and [ -ing]
• Final /-ing / is substituted by [n]. Also, an addition of a velar stop
Common Error Types:
Glides
- delete glides
* substitute w, d, h, or l for the [j ]
Common Error Types:
Stops
- delete the final stop
- front the velar stops to alveolar
- deaspirate the initial voiceless stop (pre-vocalic voicing)
Common Error Types:
Liquids
- /w/ for /l/ and /r/
- delete the initial liquids
- substitute a rounded vowel and schwa for the final /l/ or /r/ (vowelization)
- delete the final /l/ and /r/
Common Error Types:
Labial and dental fricatives
- substitute the stop for fricative
- substitute /f/ for /vlth/
- substitute /b/ for /v/
- substitute /f/ for /v/
- substitute /s/ or /f/ for initial / vlth/
- substitute /d/ for /vth /
Common Error Types:
Alveolar and palatal fricatives and affricates
- deletion of final fricatives /s, z, sh/
- stopping of fricatives and affricates
- devoicing of the final /z/ and / dj/
- depalatalization of initial and final palatals /sh, ch, dj /
- deaffrication of initial and final /ch/
- dental distortions of /s/ , lateral or fronted
- stopping of initial /s/
Consonant clusters
- by 2 years old child can produce clusters, may not be adult model
- word final clusters are developed earlier than word initial clusters because of the addition of morphemes at the final position
- clusters with stop are produced earlier than those that contain a fricative
- two element clusters are produced earlier than 3 element clusters
Development of distinctive features from earliest to latest developing:
Nasal + nasality + grave (most anterior in front of oral cavity) + voice + diffuse (posterior part of oral cavity) + strident + continuent
Phonological processes in normal developing children
Common in normal developing children Final • consonant deletion • cluster reduction • weak syllable deletion (unstressed) • stopping • fronting • gliding
Most phonological processes are absent by age ______
5
past age 5 need therapy
Processes disappearing by age 3
- final consonant deletion
- weak syllable deletion
- velar fronting
- reduplication
- prevocalic voicing
- consonant assimilation
- diminutization
Processes persisting after age 3
- cluster reduction
- epenthesis
- gliding
- vowelization (vocalization)
- stopping
- depalatalization
- final devoicing
Speech intelligibility:
- By 5 years of age…they should be 100% intelligible (doesn’t have to be perfect but you should know everything they are saying)
- Majority of children by first grade will have acquired the phonological skills of their language
by age 19-24 months they should be _______
2-3 years __________
4-5 years __________
5+ years ___________
25-50% intelligible
50-75% intelligible
75-90% intelligible
90-100% intelligible
Linguistic Models of Speech Acquisition
innate universal knowledge and that our speech and language development is dictated by mental representations, processes, rules, and constraints and ranking of those constraints. Everyone is born with the same constraints, constraints and rules are defined by primary language
Hypothesis of Discontinuity: Jakobson
He believed that babbling and initial word production and development were completely separate, that babbling was nonsensical rambling and had no contribution to speech development. You develop distinctive features in a manner that you learn sound that are very different (back low /a/ and a voiceless bilabial stop) and over time develop distinctive features. He thought that speech sound acquisition followed a universal and innate pattern in which the distinctive features are acquired in a hierarchical manner. He proposed that the acquisition of distinctive features if an unfolding process. Since that time they have proven that babbling is a precursor to speech development
Natural Phonology
a linear theory, most foundational in terms of phonological processes in normal developing children. From a more natural context that occur
over all languages (common phonological process and easier sounds) and then to sounds that are more difficult to produce
Nonlinear Phonological Theories
Cognitive Model:
they believe that the child actively tests hypotheses regarding phonological constraints (trial and error to learn speech production)
They base this off of the fact that every child’s first word is different and they have a unique way of simplifying the adult model
Nonlinear Phonological Theories
Prosodic View:
includes intonation and syllabic structure propose that children don’t start out with a complete phonological system. They start out with an
imperfect system that is slowly refined to match the adult phonological system. Focuses on words as the initial learning unit, learn words before phonemic
combinations
All theories
Broad to more specific refinement of our language
Behaviorist Models
looks at experimental data (Skinner, operant conditioning- control acts by controlling consequences with positive/negative reinforcement) verbal output is a direct result from reinforcement. Speech sounds out of babbling, from environmental reinforcement and parent scaffolding their speech develops to be like the adult model. This model doesn’t account for processes and language rules that children use
