Exam 1 Flashcards
Politics
• Process of making collective decisions about resource allocation
o The struggle of who gets what, when, and how
• Includes creating and enforcing societal rules
Preferences
outcomes or experiences people want or believe they need
Play a key role in politics
Institutions
• Rules or sets of rules or practices that determine how people make collective decisions
• Collection of informal procedures that determine how collective decisions are made
type of institutions put into place have an effect on the type of resources and benefits that get spread to society
Collective Dilemmas
- A situation in which there is conflict between group goals and individual goals or self-interest
- Government can help solve collective dilemmas in society
Prisoner’s Dilemma
• An interaction between two strategic actors in which neither actor has an incentive to cooperate even though both would be better off if they both cooperated
Ex: a candidate’s decision to run TV ads
*Involves 2 individuals not a group
Collective-Action Problems
• A situation in which people would be better off if they all cooperated; however, any individual has an incentive not to cooperate as long as others are cooperating
people are better off free riding and enjoying public goods without contributing
Public Good
a benefit provided to a group of people such that each member can enjoy it without necessarily having to pay for it, and one person’s enjoyment of it does not inhibit the enjoyment of it by others
• Individuals have no incentive to provide public goods → free riding occurs
Free riding
benefitting from a public good while avoiding the costs of contributing to it
Coordination Problems
• A situation in which two or more people are all better off if they coordinate on a common course of action but there is more than one possible course of action to take
• Group wants to act in common, but cannot agree on solution
(a situation in which a group of people want to coordinate, but there are many possible ways to coordinate and people disagree over which way is best )
Unstable Coalitions
• An instance in which three or more people must make a collective choice from a set of alternatives, but any voting coalition in favor of an alternative can be divided by consideration of another alternative
o Minimum winning coalition: the smallest-size coalition necessary to achieve a goal
• Unstable coalitions can undermine collective decision making
Agenda Setter
an authority that controls what options are decided on by a group
Principal-Agent Problems
• An instance in which one actor, a principal, contracts another actor, an agent to act on the principal’s behalf, but the actor may not share the same preferences, and the principal lacks the means to observe all of the agent’s behavior
o Information asymmetry exists between principal and agent (agent knows some things you don’t)
o All elected official are “agents” of the voters (“principals”)
o Elected officials can also be “principals” who delegate tasks to bureaucrats and bureaucratic agencies (“agents”)
o Institutions are often created to help mitigate principal-agent problems
• Elections serve as the check on the behavior of elected officials—if a member of the House or Senate does a poor job representing the views of their constituents, they will often be defeated in the next election
Public Policy
programs and decisions by the government that are enforced by the role of law
Authoritarianism
o A political system in which there is no expectation that the government represents the people, and the institutions of government do not give the people a direct voice in who will lead
not a principle-agent situation
Dictatorship
• An authoritarian political system in which sovereign power is vested in one individual
Monarchy
• A political system in which a ruler (usually a king or queen) is chosen by virtue of being the heir of the previous ruler
One-party state
• A political system in which one party controls the government and actively seeks to prevent other parties from contesting for power
Oligarchy
a political system in which power resides in a small segment of society
Democracy
rule by the people; in practice today this means popular election of the government and basic protection so f civil rights and liberties
Republic
a political system in which public officials are chosen to represent the people in an assembly that makes important policy decisions
“rule of law”
o A system in which all people in a society, including governing officials, are subject to legal codes that are applied without bias by independent courts
basics of policy making
• Outline responsibilities of government institutions
• Determine who is eligible to serve in government positions
“prescriptions” to help solve collective dilemmas
Declaration of Independence
(1) Argument for rebellion based on lack of consent of governed - Government is not legitimate if the people don’t consent to be governed
(2) Argument for rebellion based on complaints about King George and British Rule
(3) Formal declaration of independence
Articles of Confederation
set up a weak central government consisting of a congress with limited legislative power and virtually no authority over the execution of its laws
• Each state had one vote
• Had powers, but no means of enforcement
• Required unanimous consent to amend (no progress)
• The government could not compel state to pay their share of debt/taxes
• Articles lacked effective mean of coordination and preventing free-riding
• Failure led to Constitutional Convention
Constitutional Convention
consider amendments to the AOC
decided to scrap the AOC and write new document
wrestled with how to combine strong national government with protections of individual liberty
Virginia Plan
outlines a stronger national government, with an independent executive and a bicameral legislature whose membership in both houses would be apportioned according to state population
strong legislature apportioned by population (because VA was the biggest state governed by the AOC)
• Bicameral legislature with upper chamber elected by lower chamber
• Advantage large states at expense of small states
• Single executive appointed by the legislature
New Jersey Plan
amend, rather than replace, the standing Articles of Constituting. The plan called for a unicameral legislature with equal representation among the states, along with a plural (multiperson) executive appointed by the legislature
o No separation of powers because executive is elected by the legislature
1 representative per state
Connecticut Compromise
bicameral legislature, with an upper house (the Senate) composed of equal representation for each state and a lower house (the House of Representatives) composed of representation from each state in proportion to the population
• House representation based on population *VA Plan
o Slaves count as 3/5 for representation and taxation
• Equal state representation in Senate – 2 senators per state *NJ Plan
o Senators elected by state legislatures
• Unitary executive (not elected by state legislatures) *VA Plan
o Electoral college: the electors appointed by each state to vote for the president
Constitution
• President as head of executive branch
o Elected by electoral college (electors appointed by each state to vote for the president) to 4-year term
o Does not put any term limit on the executive
• Bicameral legislature: Senate & House
o Congress was intended to have most power
• Independent Judicial branch
o Justices serve for life after presidential nomination and Senate confirmation
Expressed Powers of Congress
o Article I, Section 8: lists powers of Congress
o “To regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several states and with the Indians” ← this clause is used to expand Congress’s power a lot based on the interpretation of commerce
Elastic Clause
provision in Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution that states that Congress can make whatever laws are “necessary and proper” in order to provide the means to carry out its enumerated powers
o Allows Congress to pass all laws that are “necessary and proper” to carry out enumerate powers
o Supreme Court decides whether a law is necessary and proper
o Expands amount of power congress has
Separation of Powers
specific governmental powers are divided among distinct branches of government; typically, this means having an executive who is chose independently of the legislature, and thus executives power and legislative power are separated
Checks and balances
an arrangement in which no one branch of government can conduct its core business without the approval, tacit or expressed, of the other branches
o Court can rule executive actions of the President unconstitutional
Supremacy Clause
o The section of Article VI of the Constitution that states that the Constitution and the subsequent laws of the United States are to be the “supreme law of the land,” meaning that they supersede any state and local laws
o Article VI Section II: “The laws that are passed by the federal government are the supreme laws of the land”
Reserved Powers
o Those powers not granted to the national government by the Constitution, and therefore reserved to the states
*10th Amendment
Amending the Constitution
o Two-thirds of each legislative chamber, plus three-quarters of state legislatures
o Two-thirds of state legislatures can call for convention; proposed amendments need three-quarters of state legislatures
o Only the first method has been used (all 27 amendments proposed by Congress)
Federalists
favored adopting the Constitution as written because they believed that a strong national government was needed to solve the collective dilemmas facing the states
o Federalist Paper
• Federalists offered Bill of Rights as olive branch to get support of antifederalists
Antifederalists
opposed adopting the Constitution as written because they feared that it created an overly strong national government
o “Letters from the Federal Farmer to the Republican”
Federalist Papers
• Written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay
o – Publius ← how they signed all of the letters, written anonymously
• Outlined arguments that institutions were necessary to solve collective dilemmas
• Checks and balances would constrain government
• Most were written to NY, which was a big, important state that needed to ratify the constitution
Bill of Rights
• The first 10 amendments to the Constitution, which enumerate a set of liberties not to be violated by the government and a set of rights to be protected by the government
o Proponents of states’ rights wanted there to be a Bill of Rights that would guarantee rights to Americans
• Provides protections for free speech, right to counsel, freedom of religion, right to bear arms, and security against intrusion on private property
Thirteenth Amendment
Abolished slavery
Commerce Clause
• An enumerated power listed in Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution that grants Congress the power to “regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes”
has been used to expand government power, because commerce has been interpreted to mean a lot of things
Seventeenth Amendment
modified how Senators are elected (elected by American people not state legislators now
Federalism
• A political system with multiple levels of government, in which each level has independent authority over some important policy areas
• Lower level of government enjoys constitutional protection from national government & exercises independent authority over some policy areas
• National government can compel action
o National governments gives money to states as incentives, but states then have to comply with their regulations
• Ex: United States today
(Can help solve collective-action problems)
Confederation
• A political system with multiple levels of government. In which lower-level governments retain full sovereignty and cannot be compelled by the national government to act
• Lower-level governments retain full sovereignty
• National government cannot compel action (coin money, raise taxes)
• Example: United States under Articles of Confederation, European Union
loose collection of other subunits of government (more likely if countries are really big, because local branches are needed to manage large territory)
Dual Federalism
each level of government—national and state—is sovereign in its sphere of political authority
*separate spheres of power
Cooperative Federalism
both levels of government—national and state—are active in nearly all areas of policy and share sovereign authority
*shared spheres of power
Intergovernmentalism
multiple levels of government are active in a given policy area
*shared spheres in certain policy areas
Restrictions on State Power
*Article 1, Section 10
• Can’t make treaties with other states/countries
• Can’t coin money
Restriction on Federal Power
*Article 1, Section 9
• Can’t place tariffs on goods that go back and forth between states
• Can’t give priority to certain state ports over others
Sixteenth Amendment
Federal Income Tax
*Progressive Era
Seventeenth Amendment
Direction election of senators –> increases power of national government
*Progressive Era
New Deal Era
• Great Depression created many economic problems in society that federal government tried to solve
o Created bureaus to regulate many aspects of American business
o Established programs to put people to work building infrastructure
o Social Security Act
• Biggest increase in federal government power came with New Deal
• Size of the federal budget increased 14.5X
Great Society Era
o Attempt to deal with social problems
• Civil Rights Act (1964) and Voting Rights Act (1965) (everyone has the right to vote)
• Johnson’s “War on Poverty” (tried to deal with the social problem of inequality of income with housing allowance)
• Nixon signed Clean Air Act (put regulations on pollution, set national standards that governed all of the states)
Grants-in-Aid
special projects
o Money that is distributed to lower-level governments with the purpose of funding special projects
o Example: school lunch programs, improving transportation
Categorical Grants
specific spending with conditions (must be spend exactly how federal governments want it to)
o Grants that narrowly define how the funds are to be spent. These grants normally come with conditions that need to be satisfied in order for the money to be used
o Example: school lunches with certain dietary provisions
Revenue Sharing
state and federal partner to fund project
o A principle whereby the national government and the lower-level governments cooperate in funding a project
Block Grants
general funds and freedom to spend
o Sums of money transferred to lower-level governments such that, as long as the general purpose of the grant is met, the lower-level governments are allowed considerable freedom in deciding how the money is spent
State Governments
similar in structure to federal government
o Bicameral
o Most have an executive (governor)
o Separation of powers: legislature & judiciary branch
o Gubernatorial powers vary by state
o Professionalization of legislatures varies by state
• Some states have professional legislatures (being a legislature is a full-time job): CA, NY, MI, IL
• Other states have citizen legislatures (not their full time job): New Hampshire, TX
Direct Democracy
*present in state governments
ballot initiative (an election in which citizens vote directly on a proposition raised by a group of fellow citizens)
referendum (an election in which citizens vote directly on whether to overturn a bill or a constitutional amendment that has been passed by the legislature)
recall election (an election during the term of an elected government official in which citizens vote directly on whether to remove the individual from office)
• Ex: recreational marijuana in 2012)
• Opportunity for citizens to be directly involved in governments
Local Governments
o Mayoral • Large cities (or really small local governments) • Mayor has considerable power • Mayor and city council elected • Ex: Chapel Hill
o Council-manager • Most common • Small-to-medium cities • City council elected, appoints city managers • Elected council appoints professional • Ex: Durham
Unitary System
the national government holds ultimate authority over all areas of policy and over the actions of subunit governments
national/federal government is the only government and presides over all spheres of influence (more likely if a country is very small or has one common language and unitary interests
Why the national government has grown
- Seventeenth amendment (Senators are not elected by the people not states)
- National elections that focus on national problems/candidates/officials/solutions (focus is not on state governments)
- Vagueness of Constitution has made it difficult to check federal power
- To help address crises and collective dilemmas among the states
Civil Rights
o Rights that enable individuals to engage in activities central to citizenship or legal immigrant status, such as voting or petitioning the government; ensure all individuals receive due process and equal treatment under the law; guarantee freedom from discriminatory actions by others that seek to deny an individual’s full status as an equal member of society
*Protections government provides
• Rights are actively protected
Civil liberties
o Freedoms protected from interference by the government, such as freedom of speech and freedom of religion
*Protection from government
block government from improper action
Civil War Amendments
o Thirteenth – banned slavery
o Fourteenth – granted citizenship to slaves (guaranteed due process under law, rights cannot be violates) and included an equal protection clause (all citizens in the country deserve equal protection); required the states to abide by the U.S. Bill of Rights
o Fifteenth – outlawed racial discrimination, extended voting to African Americans
New Voting Groups
o Fifteenth – extended right to vote to African Americans
o Nineteenth – extended right to vote to women
o Twenty-Fourth – abolished a poll tax (states could place a poll tax to keep individuals from voting)
o Twenty-Sixth – lowered the voting age to 18
Ninth Amendment & Privacy
guaranteed rights beyond those just listed in the Bill of rights; just because a right isn’t mentioned in the Bill of Rights / Constitution doesn’t mean people don’t have it
Role of Courts
important role in defining what rights and liberties are and ensuring rights and liberties
• Can protect against majority tyranny (since justices are not elected by the American people, they are less afraid to rule against the majority)
- Courts must rely on elected branches for enforcement
- Courts have no way of enforcing their decisions, don’t have the power of the purse or the executive so they rely on Congress and the President to comply with Supreme Court Decisions
Jim Crow Laws
laws passed after the Civil War to establish a system of segregation of public facilities and private establishments that made African American second-class citizens laws to prevent African Americans from participating meaningfully in society and government
Civil Rights Movement
• A social movement of the 1950s and 1960s focused primarily on the situation of American Americans, but also promoting the goals that all people be treated as equals under the law and that discrimination based on race, religion, ethnicity, gender, and place of origin be eliminated
focused on African American rights
• Focused on unjust laws in southern states
o Advocates of the Civil Rights Movement looked to Congress not the Supreme Court to secure their rights because the Supreme Court had not been protecting rights and liberties
o Civil Rights Act: prohibited all discrimination of the basis of race, national origin, or religion
o Voting Rights Act: federal government was going to make sure all citizens given the right to vote actually had the opportunity to vote
Incorporation
• The process by which rights and liberties established by the Bill of Rights are applied to state and local governments through the Fourteenth Amendment
Fourteenth Amendment
o Due Process: right to legal protection against arbitrary deprivation (guaranteed every individual would have the right to legal protection against every violation of their right to life, liberty, and property)
o Equal Protection: laws passed and enforced by states must equally protect all individuals (laws passed by states had to apply equally to everyone; states cannot deprive protection of any laws)
- Due process: the right to legal protection against arbitrary deprivation of life, liberty, or property
- Equal protection: The principle that laws passed and enforced by the states must apply fairly to all individuals
Strict Scrutiny
highest level standard used by the Supreme Court to determine whether a law is compatible with the Constitution. A law subject to this standard is considered unconstitutional unless it advances a “compelling state interest” and represents the least intrusive means
(if a law appears to discriminate against race, color, religion, or national origin unless that state can prove there is a compelling interest and the means of achieving that objective are the least intrusive)
*14th Amendment
Intermediate Scrutiny
decides whether or not a law is Constitutional based on other criteria than suspect criteria
law subject to this standard is considered constitutional if it advances “an important government objective” and is “substantially related” to the objective
*14th Amendment
Rational Basis Test
lowest-level standard used by the Supreme Court to determine whether a law is compatible with the Constitution
law subject to this standard is assumed to be constitutional as long as its goals are clearly linked to its means
• Ex: a law that says individuals who are blind are not allowed to drive
Affirmative Action
• Efforts to redress previous discrimination against women and minorities through active measure to promote their employment and educational opportunities
o University admissions
o Affirmative action in hiring policies
• Increases diversity, but some argue reverse discrimination (individuals who are qualified but aren’t a member of the minority group lose the opportunity)
• Race can be one, but not only factor in admissions decisions
• Diversity is a criteria, but no quotas or extra points
Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA)
Law in 1996 at the federal level defining marriage between one man and one woman
o In 2013, the Supreme Court struck down portions of the Defense of Marriage Act (like marriage defined as between a man and a woman)
o Provision of DOMA – states can decide how they define marriage
• Same-sex marriage and civil unions
o Civil rights of marriage (not legal provision of marriage, but all the rights and benefits that come through marriage are given to partners)
