Exam 1 Flashcards
What characterizes pathological aging?
Greater than average decline including cognitive impairment or chronic disease
Pathological aging is not the norm and represents a severe form of aging.
What is successful aging?
Maintenance of positive physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development longer, declining later in old age
Associated with higher quality of life and independence.
Define chronological age.
Number of years that have elapsed since birth.
What does biological age refer to?
Person’s age in terms of biological health.
What is psychological age?
Individual’s adaptive capacities compared with those of others of the same chronological age.
What protective factors for cognitive functioning in older adults were identified?
Conscientiousness and emotional stability.
What psychological well-being factors predict lower mortality risk?
Higher purpose in life, positive affect, optimism, social support, and life satisfaction.
What are the steps of the scientific method?
- Conceptualize a problem
- Develop hypotheses
- Collect data
- Analyze data
- Draw conclusions.
What distinguishes a theory from a hypothesis?
Theory is an interrelated set of ideas; hypotheses are specific testable predictions.
What is the primary focus of Freud’s oral stage?
Pleasure centered around the mouth.
What is the primary conflict during Freud’s anal stage?
Bowel and bladder control.
What happens if fixation occurs at Freud’s oral stage?
Issues with dependency or aggression may develop.
What is the Oedipus complex?
Feelings of wanting to possess the mother and replace the father.
What is the focus of the latency stage in Freud’s psychosexual stages?
Sexual feelings are dormant.
What characterizes Erikson’s stage of Trust vs. Mistrust?
Babies learn to trust caregivers or develop mistrust if needs are unmet.
What is the main focus of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage?
Learning through sensory experiences and motor actions.
What is object permanence?
Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.
What is the key milestone of the formal operational stage?
Ability to think abstractly and reason hypothetically.
Define accommodation in Piaget’s theory.
Altering existing schemas as a result of new information.
What does the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) refer to?
Range of tasks too difficult for a child to master alone but can be learned with guidance.
What is scaffolding?
Support from a more knowledgeable person.
What does Skinner’s operant conditioning focus on?
How behavior is influenced by consequences.
What is the role of reinforcement in operant conditioning?
Increases the likelihood of a behavior.
What does Bandura’s observational learning emphasize?
People learn by observing others.
What is ethology?
Study of innate behaviors shaped by evolution.
What is the focus of behavior genetics?
Discover the influence of heredity and environment on individual differences.
Define epigenetics.
Interaction between genes and environment affecting development.
What occurs during the germinal period of prenatal development?
Creation of the fertilized egg (zygote) and cell division.
What happens during the embryonic period?
Intensified cell differentiation and formation of support systems and organs.
What is neurogenesis?
The generation of new neurons during prenatal development.
What does dynamic systems theory propose about motor skills?
Infants assemble motor skills for perceiving and acting.
What is phonology in language development?
Sound system of a language.
What is the interactionist view of language development?
Emphasizes that both biology and experience contribute to language development.
What are Ainsworth’s attachment styles?
- Secure attachment
- Insecure-avoidant
- Insecure-resistant
- Disorganized.
What role does oxytocin play in attachment?
Key role in bonding between mothers and infants.
What characterizes authoritarian parenting?
Restrictive and punitive style with little verbal exchange.
What is authoritative parenting?
Encourages independence with limits and controls.
Define neglectful parenting.
Style where the parent is uninvolved in the child’s life.
What is informed consent in research ethics?
Participants must be aware of risks and can withdraw at any time.
What is naturalistic observation?
Observing behavior in real-world settings without manipulation.
What is a case study?
In-depth analysis of a single individual.
What is a longitudinal study?
Research strategy studying the same individuals over time, usually 7 years or more.
What is a potential problem with surveys and interviews?
Participants may answer in socially desirable ways rather than truthfully.
