exam 1 Flashcards

Question

What is a fundamental problem or causal inference?

Answer 1

- We only observe the state of one world. - The causal impact of a variable requires comparing the observed state of the world to counterfactual state of the world that does NOT exist!

Answer 2

Understanding cause and effect requires comparing what we did observe to what we would have observed if things were different. "experimental" evidence (randomized) gets us closest, but this is challenging (impossible?) for many social questions. We are then left with "observational" evidence, which presents a special challenge to distinguish correlation from cause to effect. Correlation/association indicates a relationship between two variables, while causation means one variable directly influences the other; in observational data, it's harder to establish causation because other factors might be at play.

Answer 3

Reverse causality in social sciences, particularly in comparative politics, occurs when the presumed effect of one variable actually influences the supposed cause, creating a bidirectional relationship that complicates the interpretation of data. we assume that X comes first, and then causes y. reverse causality assumes that y comes first, and then causes x.

Answer 4

In social science and comparative politics, the inverting process refers to reversing the direction of causal relationships or assumptions, where what was initially considered the cause is instead treated as the effect, often to test alternative explanations or challenge existing theories.

Answer 5

Omitted variables: some factors explain the original correlation. Omitted variable bias in social science, particularly in comparative politics, occurs when a relevant variable that influences both the independent and dependent variables is left out of the analysis, leading to inaccurate or biased results about the relationship between the variables.

Answer 6

process/procedural/minimal definitions focus on the methods, rules, and procedures by which something operates, while outcome/liberal/substantive definitions emphasize the end results or substantive conditions, such as the achievements or goals that a system or process produces. Process/Procedural/Minimal: Focuses on the procedures and mechanisms (e.g., democracy defined by regular, fair elections). Outcome/Liberal/Substantive: Focuses on the substantive effects or outcomes (e.g., democracy defined by individual freedoms, political participation, and equality).

Answer 7

Schumpeter's focus on the "competitive struggle" highlights how entrepreneurship and innovation drive economic progress by disrupting established industries through creative destruction.

Answer 8

The problem with simple "process" definitions in social science, especially in comparative politics, is that they can be too narrow, focusing only on procedures or mechanisms without considering the substantive outcomes, such as political rights or social justice, which are also crucial to understanding political systems.

Answer 9

the fallacy of electoralism: is the idea that there are lots of cases about an election, and we have to make sure that they sit into the democracy. he fallacy of electoralism is the belief that free and fair elections alone are sufficient to guarantee democracy, overlooking the importance of other democratic elements like political freedoms, rule of law, and civil rights. It suggests that simply having elections does not ensure a fully functioning, just, or inclusive democratic system.

Answer 10

Electoral democracy or procedural minimal definitions focus on the basic procedures of democracy, such as regular, free, and fair elections, without necessarily considering broader democratic values like political freedoms or social equality. It emphasizes the process over the substance.

Answer 11

Liberal democracy adds... - classically liberal ideas regarding individual rights and freedoms - constitutional liberalism / "inalienable" rights - rule of law / independent judiciary. - effective checks and balances that limit scope of executive power.

Answer 12

individual rights & freedoms

Answer 13

it is the independent judiciary. An independent judiciary is a legal system where judges make decisions free from external influence or pressure, ensuring fair and impartial rulings based on the law.

Answer 14

Modern democracies are all "representative" democracies. That is, they all tend to rely on some process where voters empower leaders to act on their behalf. Direct democracy is a system where citizens directly participate in decision-making, rather than electing representatives to make decisions on their behalf.

Answer 15

Democracy occurs across the modernization spectrum, for many different reasons. But poor democracies tend not to last about consolidation not transition. Democratic transition refers to the process of a country moving from an authoritarian regime to a democratic system, while democratic consolidation is the phase where democracy becomes deeply entrenched, stable, and widely accepted by both elites and the public.

Answer 16

First Wave (1820s-1920s): Expansion of democracy in Europe and the Americas. Second Wave (1940s-1960s): Post-World War II democratization, particularly in Europe and Japan. Third Wave (1970s-2000s): Widespread democratization, especially in Latin America, Eastern Europe, and parts of Africa and Asia. Reverse waves are periods when democracy declines, and countries revert to authoritarian regimes. Notable reverse waves occurred after the First World War (early 20th century) and following the collapse of the third wave in the early 2000s, where some countries experienced democratic backsliding.

Answer 17

The Third Wave of democracy, starting in the mid-1970s, was a period of widespread democratic transitions, especially in Southern Europe, Latin America, Eastern Europe, and parts of Africa and Asia. It was triggered by the fall of authoritarian regimes, the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe, and the rise of popular movements calling for democracy. This wave significantly expanded global democracy, though its consolidation varied across regions.

Answer 18

Yes, there has been a third reverse wave of democracy, which began in the early 2000s. This wave refers to a period of democratic backsliding, where several countries experienced a decline in democratic practices and the rise of authoritarianism or hybrid regimes. Factors contributing to this include economic crises, political instability, and weakening institutions, as seen in countries like Russia, Turkey, and parts of Latin America and Eastern Europe.

Answer 19

In comparative politics, legitimacy refers to the belief that a political system or government is rightfully in power and has the consent of the governed. It is crucial for the stability and functioning of democratic systems. The spread of democracy refers to the global expansion of democratic governance, often driven by factors like economic development, international pressure, civil society movements, and democratic diffusion (where democratic practices spread through influence or example). The legitimacy of democracy plays a key role in its success and sustainability, as it encourages active participation and acceptance among citizens.

Answer 20

The Demonstration Effect in comparative politics refers to the phenomenon where the success of a democratic movement or reform in one country inspires or encourages similar movements in neighboring or nearby countries. This effect occurs when people see the positive outcomes of democratization, such as improved political freedoms or economic benefits, and strive to replicate those successes in their own societies. EX: The Arab Spring (2010–2012) is a strong example of the demonstration effect. The uprisings began in Tunisia, where protests against government corruption and repression led to the ousting of President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali. The success of this movement inspired similar protests in Egypt, Libya, Syria, Yemen, and Bahrain, as citizens in these countries saw that political change was possible through mass mobilization.

Answer 21

Modernization theory suggests that as societies develop, they will inevitably progress through a series of stages that lead to democracy, economic growth, and social change. It argues that economic development, urbanization, education, and technological progress will drive political modernization and democratization. Examples: Post-WWII Europe: The theory was applied to explain the transformation of Western European countries, where economic growth and modernization led to stable democracies. Latin America in the 20th century: It was used to understand why countries that developed economically (like Chile and Costa Rica) were more likely to become democratic, while those that didn’t (like Argentina or Brazil) often faced instability or authoritarianism. Critics argue that the theory oversimplifies the process and doesn't account for historical, cultural, or political factors influencing democratization.

Answer 22

"The more well we do in a nation, the larger the chances that it will sustain democracy." endogenous: economic development, through a set of intermediate factors, increases the odds of democratization/democratic transition. exogenous: democracy occurs across the modernization spectrum, for many different reasons.

Answer 23

Selection bias and survivorship bias are types of biases that can distort conclusions in social science, especially in comparative politics. Selection bias occurs when the individuals or cases selected for a study are not representative of the broader population, leading to skewed results. For example, analyzing only stable democracies to understand democratization may overlook countries that failed in their democratic transitions. Survivorship bias happens when only the "surviving" cases (those that have succeeded or persisted) are considered, while failed cases are ignored. This leads to overly optimistic conclusions, such as assuming all democratic transitions are likely to succeed because we focus only on the countries where democracy has lasted. Both biases can undermine the validity of comparative political studies by failing to account for the full range of experiences and outcomes.

Answer 24

this is the redistributive policies (like taxes) are set by the median voter in a democracy. - This is also the degree of inequality that determines where the median voter is, and how far away from the dictator that they are. The median voter theorem states that in a majority-rule election, candidates or parties will converge toward the policy preferences of the median voter to maximize their chances of winning.

Answer 25

The fiscal bargain and natural resources play significant roles in the context of modernization theory of democracy: Fiscal bargain: This concept refers to the arrangement between the state and its citizens where the state provides public goods and services in exchange for taxes or resources from the population. In modernizing societies, this relationship is crucial for building state legitimacy and promoting social stability, which can help create conditions favorable for democratization. Modernization theory suggests that as a country develops economically, the fiscal bargain becomes more complex, and citizens demand greater accountability, potentially leading to more democratic governance. Natural resources: Modernization theory also suggests that countries rich in natural resources (like oil or minerals) often face challenges in democratizing. Resource wealth can fuel authoritarian regimes because the state can finance itself without relying on citizens for taxation, reducing the pressure for democratization. This phenomenon is often referred to as the "resource curse." In contrast, countries without such resources may be more likely to develop a fiscal bargain, where the government is more accountable to its citizens, promoting democratic governance. Together, these factors suggest that economic development and the relationship between citizens and the state are central to understanding the trajectory toward democracy, though natural resource wealth can complicate the process.

Answer 26

Cultural theories of democratization argue that societal values and cultural factors shape the transition to democracy, its performance, and survival. Societies with a culture that values democracy, civic participation, and tolerance are more likely to successfully democratize and sustain democratic practices. Democratization: Countries with a history of political engagement (e.g., Western Europe after WWII) are more likely to transition to democracy. Democratic performance: Societies with strong democratic cultures (e.g., Scandinavian countries) perform well in sustaining democracy. Democratic survival: Democracies are more stable in cultures that value democratic principles (e.g., post-WWII Germany), while a lack of democratic culture can lead to authoritarianism (e.g., Russia).

exam 1 Flashcards

comparative politics exam 1 review.