Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
Disease
A
An abnormal condition that affects structure/ function of part or all of the body
2
Q
What is disease usually associated with?
A
Signs and symptoms
3
Q
What are symptoms?
A
Physical or mental feature regarded as indicating a condition of a disease. Sign or existence of something. How to determine what diseases we are dealing with.
4
Q
What causes disease?
A
Infectious agents
Injury
Environmental factors
Genetic disorders
Stress
Medications
Poor nutrition
Physical inactivity
5
Q
What are the classifications of diseases
A
(DANMIIT)
Degenerative
Anomalous
Metabolic
Inflammatory (infectious, immune-mediated)
Idiopathic
Trama, toxins
6
Q
What is a degenerative disease?
A
A chronic disease that causes the function or structure of tissues or organs to decline over time. Degenerative cell changes that result in deterioration of organs/tissue
7
Q
What is an anomalous disease?
A
Birth defects. Structural or function anomalies present at birth that cause health problems. Developed prenatally
8
Q
What causes anomalous diseases?
A
Inherited, issues during fetal development, and environmental influence
9
Q
What is nutritional disease?
A
An excess or deficiency of macronutrients
10
Q
What are macronutrient examples?
A
Carbs, lipids, and proteins
11
Q
What are micronutrients?
A
Vitamins and minerals
12
Q
Water soluble vitamins
A
Not stored by the body, so need to be consumed regularly
13
Q
What are water-soluble vitamin examples?
A
B complex, C
14
Q
Lipid-soluble vitamins
A
Stored in fat, liver, muscle. Not easily secreted, so only required in small amounts.
15
Q
Lipid-soluble vitamin examples:
A
A, D, E, K
16
Q
Macro-mineral examples:
A
Ca, P, Mg, K, Na
17
Q
Micro-mineral examples:
A
Se, Cu, Zn, I, Mn
18
Q
What are examples of micronutrient nutritional disease?
A
Vitamin A deficiency
Rickets (vitamin D deficiency)
Scurvy (vitamin C deficiency)
19
Q
What is neoplastic disease?
A
Abnormal and uncontrolled growth of cells or tissues in the body.
20
Q
Metastasis
A
Spread of cancer cells from place of origin to another part of the body
21
Q
What is metabolic disease?
A
Disorder that affects the body’s ability to process ad distribute macronutrients. Disrupts normal metabolism and affects energy production. Nutritional imbalances..
22
Q
How are metabolic diseases inherited?
A
Defective enzymes/pathways. Causes a build up of metabolite
23
Q
How are nutritional diseases acquired?
A
From a faulty organ affecting metabolism
24
Q
What is an inflammatory disease?
A
Inflammation of a particular organ or tissue.
25
What causes inflammatory diseases?
Infections and immune-mediated causes
26
What are infectious causes of inflammatory diseases?
Bacteria, virus, parasites, protozoa, fungus, and prions
27
What is an infectious disease?
Caused by (micro)organisms that enter the body (pathogens)
28
Infections are ______ contagious.
not always
29
What is a bacterial disease?
Single-celled microorganisms that can exist independently or as a parasite
30
Prokaryotes
Cells that lack a nucleus or other organelles
31
Not all bacteria are _______
pathologic
32
Viral disease
Microscopic infectious particle that enters a host cell and uses its machinery to replicate. May damage host cell. Must infect a host cell to reproduce.
33
Do viruses contain genetic material?
Yes, RNA or DNA
34
Parasitic disease
Organism that live and feed off another organism of a different species and cause harm to the host. Can be zoonotic
35
Protozoan disease
Eukaryotes, free-living or in a host. Can be zoonotic
36
What are eukaryotes
Any cell that possesses a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles. Nucleus houses genetic material.
37
Fungal disease
"Mycosis"
Caused by fungus (yeast or mold) and can affect many part of the body. Can be zoonotic.
38
Prion disease
A misfolded protein that causes misfolding of the same protein ad cell death. Neurodegerative disease. Fatal
39
What are example of prion disease?
Scrapie
Chronic wasting disease
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease)
40
Immune-mediated disease
Conditions that occur when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body, resulting in inflammation/damage. Can affect many organ systems.
41
Idiopathic disease
A disease with an unknown cause or mechanism. Appears to have arisen spontaneously
42
Toxins
Poisonous substances produced by living cells or organisms. Capable of producing a morbid, noxious, or deadly event
43
Traumatic disease
Injury or damage caused by physical harm or an external source
44
Epidemiology
The study of the distribution and determinants of health and disease in a population
45
Population at risk
Individuals likely to be exposed to acquire disease
46
Determinant
Factor that influences occurrence of disease
47
Intrinsic determinants
Genotype of host, vector, pathogen
48
Extrinsic determinants
Environmental
49
Epidemiological triad
Drivers of disease transmission. Agent, host, environment
50
Agent
The microorganism that causes the disease. Either a virus, bacteria, fungi, or parasite.
51
Host
The agent infects the host, which then carries the disease and can have symptoms
52
Environment
External factors that affect the spread of disease but are not directly a part of the agent or the host are collectively known as the environment
53
Factors that affect the host
Age, breeder, gender, immune status, genetics
54
Factors that affect the environment
Weather, geography, crowding/housing, water/food, sanitation
55
Factors that affect the agent
Pathogenicity, virulence, antibiotic susceptibility, immunogenicity, survivability
56
Chain of infection
Model that describes how an infection spreads. Has 6 links that can be broken to stop the spread of germs. Helps design preventative or control measure to stop future outbreaks
57
The 6 links of the chain of infection
Characteristics of the organism (pathology),
Portal of entry,
Reservoir,
Portal of exit,
Mode of transmission,
Characteristics of the host
58
Infectious agent
What causes the disease, eg. virus, bacteria, parasite, fungus, protozoa. Ability to invade the host, virulence, amount of agent
59
Reservoir
Environment or host where the microorganism lives and multiplies. Does not usually cause harm to reservoir. Humans, animals, environment, etc.
60
Portal of exit
How the microorganism leaves the host. Usually associated with site where pathogen is located. Eg vomit, saliva, blood. Respiratory, GI, genitourinary, skin, placenta
61
Mode of transmission
How the microorganism spreads. Eg direct contact, indirect contact (via contact with fomites, vector, intermediate host), droplets, vector, airborne
62
Portal of entry
How the microorganism enters the new host. Eg mouth, eyes, respiratory trace, placenta, breaks in host barriers
63
Susceptible host
Individual that can be infected by the microorganism. Lack of resistance, changes in host defenses, tissue destruction, age, gender, stress, diet
64
Carrier host-pathogen relationship
Individual with no overt disease who harbors infectious organism. Capable of transmitting disease.
65
Chronic carriers
Continue to carry pathogen months to years after initial exposure
66
Incubating host-pathogen relationship
An infected host during incubatory stage able to transmit disease. Clinical signs may not be obvious. May be detected with diagnostics
67
Convalescent host-pathogen relationship
Recovered from disease but still able to spread disease. Clinical signs have disappeared
68
Acute
Rapid onset, short duration, progresses quickly
69
Chronic
Slow development, long duration
70
Disease event description: distribution of disease events in population based on time and space
Endemic, epidemic, sporadic
71
Endemic
Occurs in population with predictable regularity, continuously present in low levels
72
Epidemic
Spreads rapidly through population within a specific geographical area and affects a large proportion of animals in a particular time
73
Pandemic
Epidemic
Disease spread to multiple areas or the entire globe
74
Sporadic
Disease not normally present in a population, rare
75
Definitive host
Where parasite reaches sexual maturity and reproduces
76
Intermediate host
Supports the immature or non-reproductive form of the parasite. Required for development
77
Incidental/accidental/dead-end host
Shelters organism but unable to transmit to another host
78
Reservoir host
Harbors pathogen but not symptomatic. Source of infection
79
Vector host
Carriers of a disease-causing agent from infected to non-infected
80
Innate immunity
Nonspecific, present at birth
81
Surface barriers
Part of innate immunity. First line of defense. Skin, mucous membranes, chemicals
82
Internal defenses
Second line of defense. Part of innate immunity. Phagocytes, fever, NK cells, antimicrobial proteins, inflammation
83
Mucous membranes
Gastrointestinal, genitourinary, respiratory
84
Skin barrier defenses
Physical barrier. Microbiome that contains diverse, beneficial bacteria. Contains immune cells that detect and respond to pathogens. Contains chemicals, such as sweat and sebum, that have antimicrobial properties. Has a neutral pH. Sloughing occurs
85
Gastrointestinal tract defenses
Mucous membranes. Stomach acid pH, has a microbiome, peristalsis, diarrhea, rapid turnover of cells.
86
What cells in the gastrointestinal tract secret mucous?
Goblet cells
87
Peristalsis
Involuntary, wave-like contractions that move contents through the GI tract
88
Genitourinary tract defenses
Acidic urine pH, flushing effect of bladder from kidneys, length of urethra, lining of urinary tract
89
Respiratory tract defenses
Sneezing/coughing, mucous layer, cilia, alveolar microphages
90
Cilia
Tiny, muscular, hair-like projections on the cells that line the airway (respiratory epithelium). Propel liquid layer of mucus. Mucociliary clearance
91
Alveolar microphages
White blood cells on surface of alveoli. Bind and ingest pathogens. Required because mucous cannot be present on alveoli. Must stay dry for gas exchange
92
GI tract mucous membrane defense
Membrane that secretes mucous to act as a lubricant and trap microbes and has antimicrobial properties
93
Stomach acid pH defense
pH is 1.5-3.5, which most microbes cannot survive in. HCl
94
Gut microbiome defense
Prevents bad bacteria
95
Diarrhea defense
Flushes out bad material
96
Rapid turnover of cells GI tract defense
Prevents organism from. attaching and causing issues
97
Acidic urine pH defense
Prevents colonization
98
Flushing effect of bladder from kidneys defense
Prevents bacteria from adhering
99
Length of urethra: male vs. female
The longer the urethra, the longer the microorganism has to travel to cause issues. Females more susceptible to infection
100
Lining or urinary tract defense
Physical barrier. Secretion of antimicrobial peptides from cells
101
Sneezing/coughing defense
Gets rid of foreign particles
102
Mucous layer defense of respiratory tract
Traps pathogens and other particles. Prevents them from reaching the lungs
103
What is worse: upper respiratory infection or lower respiratory infection? Why?
Lower respiratory infection. Lowers the immune system and can lead to secondary infections
104
Mucociliary clearance
Process of how airways clear mucus and foreign particles/pathogens. Unidirectional movement (up and out)
105
Phagocytes
Type of white blood cell that can engulf and digest foreign material, dead cells, and pathogens. Called "scavenger cells." Nonspecific, ready to go
106
Innate immunity, first defenders on the scene
Phagocytes
107
Phagocytosis
Using cell membrane to engulf large particles and digest them
108
Main types of phagocytes
Neutrophils and microphages
109
Macrophages are derived from:
monocytes
110
Monocytes are in the _______ and macrophages are in the _______.
bloodstream, tissue
111
Neutrophils
Initial responder, first line of defense. Attack, ingest, destroy, then die. Necessary to fight infection. Continuously replaced
112
Where are neutrophils found?
In the bloodstream
113
Neutrophil lifespan
Hours to days
114
What is pus?
Dead neutrophils
115
Macrophages
Second responder, following neutrophils. Ingest and kill pathogens. Vital link for adaptive immunity
116
Macrophage lifespan
Several months
117
Natural killer (NK) cells
White blood cell that destroys abnormal cells, such as viruses, intracellular pathogens, and cancerous cells.
118
How do NK cells kill abnormal cells?
apoptosis
119
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death
120
How do NK cells identify healthy cells from abnormal cells?
MHC-I, a cell surface marker found on most health cells. Infected or cancerous cells often lose MHC-I expression
121
NK cells are _____
nonspecific
122
NK cells release ___________ into infected cells and cause _______.
perforin and granzymes, cell lysis
123
Inflammation
Response by the body to harmful stimuli, such as injury, infection, irritants.
124
What does inflammation involve?
Innate immune system and release of chemicals (inflammatory mediators)
125
Goal of inflammation
Fight off infection, clear out damaged cells, and initiate tissue repair.
126
Inflammation promotes ________
healing
127
5 cardinal signs of inflammation
Pain, heat, redness, swelling, and/or loss of function
128
Acute inflammation
Occurs immediately upon injury and lasts a few days.
129
Acute inflammation involves
Delivery of white blood cells to the site of injury where they digest and get rid of pathogens and necrotic tissue
130
What are the 2 events of acute inflammation?
Vascular event, cellular events
131
Vascular events of inflammation
Vasodilation, increase permeability of vascular barrier, exudation of fluid into interstitium (swelling)
132
Capillary widening causes
increased blood flow
133
Increased capillary permeability causes
release of fluid
134
Inflammation: attraction of white blood cells
migration of white blood cells to injury
135
Inflammation systemic response
fever and proliferation of white blood cells
136
Vasodilation during inflammation
Blood vessels adjacent to injury dilate and blood flow increases
136
Cellular events of inflammation
Neutrophil recruitment from the bloodstream by chemokines to the affected area , leukocyte extravasation, phagocytosis of pathogens, release of pyrogens
137
When and where are chemokines released?
Released into the blood immediately after injury
138
Leukocyte extravasation
Margination: when neutrophils line up against the endothelium
Rolling along the endothelium
Adhesion to the endothelium
Diapedesis: migration
139
Phagocytosis of pathogens during the cellular events of inflammation
Done by neutrophils and macrophages
140
Pyrogens
Anything that induces a fever
141
Chemokines
Chemical messengers that tell WBCs where to go and when
142
Outcomes of acute inflammation
Complete resolution, fibrosis and scar formation, chronic inflammation, abscess formation
143
Complete resolution (outcome of acute inflammation)
Total repair and destruction of insult
144
Chronic inflammation
The body continues to send inflammatory cells when when there is pathogen present. Can last months to years. Involves pain, fatigue, GI issues, frequent infects, etc.
145
Sepsis
A life-threatening emergency that occurs when the immune system overreacts to infection. Damages tissues and organs
146
Fever
Temporary increase in body temperature. A sign that the body is fighting infection/disease. A defense mechanism
147
How is a fever a defense mechanism?
The higher temperature inhibits the growth and reproduction of pathogens. Boosts the activity of the immune system
148
Overwhelmed phagocytes causes
The release of pyrogens, stimulating the release of cytokines, causing vasodilation and elevation of core body temperature
149
Body temperature is regulated by the _________.
hypothalamus
150
Examples of pyrogens
Gram negative bacteria, gram positive bacteria, environmental particles, yeast and molds, and viruses
151
Phases of wound healing
Hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, remodeling
152
Hemostasis phase of wound healing
Blood coagulation, platelet accumulation, and release of growth factor to help bind receptors on the surface of cells
153
Inflammation phase of wound healing
Cleanses debris and bacteria invasions. Migration of epithelial cells toward wound bed
154
Proliferation phase of wound healing
Formation of granulation tissue by epithelium to cover wound bed
155
Remodeling phase of wound healing
Fibroblasts completely recover wound to the wound bed. Formation of a scar
156
Cells active during the inflammation phase of wound healing
Master cells, neutrophils and monocytes, macrophages
157
Hemostasis and inflammation begin ____________ wound and lasts _________.
immediately after, mins to days
158
Proliferation begins __________ wound and lasts _______.
days after, weeks
159
Remodeling begins _________ wound and lasts _________.
weeks after, weeks to months
160
Cells involved in the proliferation phase of wound healing
Keratinocytes, endothelial cells, fibroblasts
161
Cells involved in the remodeling phase of wound healing
Keratinocytes, myofibroblasts, endothelial cells
162
Tissue regeneration
Damaged tissue entirely replaced with new growth. Restores original architecture/function, same cell population, cells that can divide and go through mitosis.
163
Examples of tissue regeneration
Skin, mucous membranes, bone marrow, liver (during acute inflammation)
164
Tissue repair
Damaged tissue results in granulation tissue. Cells that cannot divide and do not go through mitosis. May result in altered function or decreased flexibility
165
Examples of tissue repair
Nerves, skeletal/cardiac muscle
166
Is scarring regeneration?
No
167
Granulation tissue
Fibrous scar tissue
168
Efferocytosis
Phagocytes engulf dying cells
168
Adaptive immunity
Specific, not present at birth, third line of defense, requires initial encounter with pathogen, has memory, takes days to weeks to develop but responds quickly next time
169
Humoral (antibody-related) immunity
B cells
170
Cellular immunity
T cells
171
Adaptive immunity is an ________ or _________ immune system
acquired, specific
172
Adaptive immunity involves
Specialized immune cells and antibodies that attack and destroy foreign invaders
173
Adaptive immunity prevents disease in the future by:
remembering what those pathogens look like to mount a new immune response
174
2 types of adaptive immunity
humoral, cellular
175
Antigens
A foreign substance not belonging to the body and able to stimulate an immune response. A substance that induces the formation of antibodies because it is recognized by the immune system as a threat. Ex) toxin, other part of pathogen
176
Adaptive immunity is activated by the body recognizing:
an invading pathogen as foreign
177
Antigens trigger the immune system to produce:
antibodies
178
Types of antigens
Exogenous, endogenous, antoantigens, tumor antigens
179
Exogenous antigens
Foreign substances that enter the body from the outside through inhalation, ingestion, injection. Ex) bacteria, viruses, pollen, food allergens
180
Endogenous antigens
Produced by the body's own cells during normal cellular metabolism or intracellular infections
181
Autoantigens
Normally occurring proteins/molecules in the body that the immune system mistakenly identifies as foreign.
182
Tumor antigens
Found on cancer cells
183
Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs)
Immune cells (phagocytes) that display antigens to other immune cells
184
APCs display and present the antigen on their surface to:
T cells
185
APCs display _____ and ______.
antigens, MHC complex
186
When T cells recognize antigen:
MHC complex leads to activation
187
APCs help:
boost immune response
188
Types of APCs
Dendritic cells, macrophages, B cells
189
B cells are
lymphocytes
190
Dendritic cells
Immune cells found in tissues like skin
191
Steps of an APC in action
1. A bacterium is engulfed by phagocytosis into a dendritic cell and is encased in a phagosome
2. Lysosomes fuse with the phagosome and digest the bacterium
3. Immunodominant epitopes are associated with MHC-II and are presented on the cell surface
192
T cells
Type of white blood cell that helps fight infection. Respond to a specific antigen located intracellularly. Affected cells are identified and killed
193
T cells originate in the ________ and mature in the ________.
bone marrow, thymus
194
Types of T cells
cytotoxic T cells, helper T cells
195
