Exam 1

Question 1

Define neuron.

Answer 1

Specialized cells within the nervous system that transmits information using electrical and chemical signals

Question 2

Are neurons a fundamental unit of the brain and nervous system?

Answer 2

Yes, they are the primary component involved in processing and transmitting information throughout the body

Question 3

Define the neuron doctrine.

Answer 3

The belief that neurons are the structural and functional units of the nervous system

Question 4

What are the three main parts of a neuron?

Answer 4

1. Dendrites: gray matter, extended bits of the cell body
2. Soma: gray matter, cell body
3. Axons: white matter, directly communicates with the brain/body

Question 5

Define axons and their function.

Answer 5

Axons is an extension of the cell body, communicating with the brain/body through terminals that release neurotransmitters from vesicles into the synapse
- Simple: sends out signals to other cells through indirect connection (synapse)

Question 6

What is the singular unit for glial cells?

Answer 6

Glia

Question 7

How does the body insulate axons with myelin?

Answer 7

Glia secretes myelin which then coats the axon

Question 8

Define vesicle.

Answer 8

Small sac within neuron (any cell) that stores information/substances (chemicals)

Question 9

What are the structural variations within neurons?

Answer 9

1. Unipolar: single branch (axon and no dendrites) extends from the soma
2. Bipolar: two branches (axon and dendrite) extend from the soma
3. Multipolar: multiple branches (axon and many dendrites) extend from the soma

Question 10

What are the functional variations between neurons?

Answer 10

1. Sensory neurons
2. Motor neurons
3. Interneurons

Question 11

Define sensory neuron.

Answer 11

Specialized neuron that transmits information from the outside world and adapts

Question 12

Define motor neuron.

Answer 12

Specialized neuron that transmits commands from the CNS directly to muscles and glands

Question 13

Define interneurons.

Answer 13

Specialized neuron that bridges information between sensory and motor systems
- Example: Hearing a gunshot and beginning to run

Question 14

What is the structure of a neuron, know all structures and functions:
Cell body or Soma

Answer 14

The largest part of a neuron, which contains the cell’s nucleus, cytoplasm, and structures that produce proteins, convert nutrients into energy, and eliminate waste materials

Question 15

What is the structure of a neuron, know all structures and functions:
Dendrites

Answer 15

Extensions that branch out from the neuron cell body and receive information from other neurons.

Question 16

What is the structure of a neuron, know all structures and functions:
Axon terminals

Answer 16

A swelling on the branches at the end of a neuron (end part of the axon) that contains neurotransmitters; also called an end bulb.

Question 17

What is the structure of a neuron, know all structures and functions:
Axon hillock

Answer 17

the cone-shaped region of a neuron’s cell body where the axon begins.

Question 18

What is the structure of a neuron, know all structures and functions:
myelin sheath

Question 19

Polarization

Answer 19

There is a difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of the neuron. A difference in electrical charge between two points, such as the poles of a battery or between the inside and outside of a neuron.

Question 20

What are the types of potentials? What is the full process for each:
Resting potential

Answer 20

The difference in charge between the inside and outside of the membrane of a neuron at rest.

Question 21

What are the types of potentials? What is the full process for each:
Action Potential

Answer 21

An all-or-none electrical signal of a neuronal membrane that contains an abrupt voltage depolarization and return to resting potential; allows the neuron to communicate over long distances.
An abrupt depolarization of the membrane thar allows the neuron to communicate over long distances.

Question 22

What are the types of potentials? What is the full process for each:
Graded Potential

Answer 22

A voltage change in a neuron that varies with the strength of the stimulus that initiated it.

Question 23

What is the ionic nature of neurons and the role of ions like sodium, potassium, calcium, etc.

Answer 23

The charges come from ions, atoms that have lost or gained one or more electrons. Sodium ions (Na+) and Potassium ions (K+) are positively charged Chloride ions (Cl-) are negative along with amino acids that makeup the organic anions (A-). The inside of the neuron has more negative ions meanwhile the outside are more positive, making the resting potential negative.

Question 24

What is the All-or-none law

Answer 24

The principle that an action potential occurs at full strength or it does not occur at all.

Question 25

What is the difference between absolute versus relative refractory period?

Answer 25

- Absolute refractory period: A brief period following the peak of the action potential when the sodium ion channels are inactivated and the neuron cannot be fired again. - Relative refractory period: The period during which a neuron can be fired again following an action potential but only by an above-threshold stimulus

Question 26

What is myelination? Know structure and function.

Answer 26

Two types of glial cells produce myelin, a fatty tissue that wraps around the axon (like a jelly roll) to insulate it from the surrounding fluid and from other neurons. Myelin is produced in the brain and spinal cord by glial cells called oligodendrocytes (CNS) and in the rest of the nervous system by Schwann cells (PNS)

Question 27

How does myelination impact conduction speed.

Answer 27

Makes it faster and smoother, like a cord casing

Question 28

Understand Saltatory conduction and nodes of Ranvier.

Answer 28

The gaps in the myelin sheath (aka nodes of Ranvier) where the membrane is exposed, there are plenty of sodium channels, the grade potential triggers an action potential. Action potentials thus appear to jump from node to node in a form of transmission called saltatory conduction.

Question 29

What are synapses. Know their function and their structure.

Answer 29

The connection between two neurons. The neurons are not in direct physical contact at the synapse but are separate from a small gap called the synaptic cleft. Their structure is the swollen end of the terminals that look like green onion ends. - Presynaptic neurons transmit the signal - Post synaptic cells receive the signal

Question 30

What is the number of typical synaptic connections between neurons

Question 31

Understand conversion of graded potentials into action potentials.

Question 32

What is Dale’s principle. Why is it a debated/debunked theory?

Answer 32

The theory that a neuron is able to release only one neurotransmitter. It is debunked because we know that many neurons ply their postsynaptic partners with more than one chemical messenger.

Question 33

What is the order of events that can lead to the release of neurotransmitters.

Question 34

EPSPs versus IPSPs

Answer 34

EPSP: A partial depolarization of the dendrites and cell body, which makes the neuron more likely to fire. IPSP: A hyperpolarization of the dendrites and cell body, which makes a neuron less likely to fire.

Question 35

What is grey matter?

Question 36

What is white matter

Question 37

what is the difference between grey and white matter?

Question 38

Know anatomical location terms.

Question 39

Frontal lobe Know where it is and it’s function.

Answer 39

Creative thinking, thought processes, and some emotions, front of the head

Question 40

Temporal lobe. Know where it is and it’s function.

Answer 40

, sides of the lobe

Question 41

Occipital lobe. Know where it is and it’s function.

Answer 41

Controls eyesight, middle back of lobe

Question 42

What is Homunculus

Answer 42

Diagram using our ratios of receptors to skin as the basis of size - Large hands, feet, and genitals

Question 43

What are the main regions of the brain.

Question 44

The main regions of the brain. Consider what damage to these regions would result in.

Question 45

Define the Somatic nervous system

Question 46

Define the Automatic nervous system

Question 47

Name, in order, the stages of development for the nervous system

Question 48

What are the types of Staining techniques?

Answer 48

A highly detailed, often monochrome or two-tone, used for seeing individual neurons, cell bodies, or axons

Question 49

what is Autoradiography

Answer 49

Dark patches or heatmap-like visualization of receptor activity, often used in neurotransmitter research

Question 50

what is Immunocytochemistry

Answer 50

Scanning method using tagged antibodies which bind to specific proteins, forming brightly fluorescent-stained structures

Question 51

What is EEG, stereotaxic atlas

Question 52

What is an MRI?

Answer 52

High resolution grayscale or color images showing localized brain activity over time

Question 53

Define the difference between lesions vs aspiration vs ablation.

Question 54

What is a DTI?

Question 55

What is a PET scan?

Question 56

What is a CT scan?

Question 57

Define localization.

Answer 57

The idea that specific areas of the brain carry out specific functions

Question 58

Define equipotentiality.

Answer 58

The idea that the brain functions as a whole on all tasks.

Question 59

What is nature vs nurture defined by?

Answer 59

Heritability vs environment

Question 60

Define heritability.

Answer 60

Measure how well differences in people's genes account for different traits

Question 61

Define DNA.

Answer 61

Double stranded chain, resulting genotype is due to the order of the nucleotides

Question 62

Define allele.

Answer 62

Different versions of a gene, Pp vs PP vs pp

Question 63

What is X-linked Hypertrichosis?

Answer 63

Excessive body hair growth on females

Question 64

What is a monogenetic behavior/characteristic? List some examples.

Answer 64

Behavior/characteristic relying on only one gene - Male pattern baldness - Color blindness - Supertasting - misc. traits like widows peaks

Question 65

What is a polygenetic behavior/characteristic? List some examples.

Answer 65

Behavior/characteristic that relies on multiple genes - Height and Weight - Skin Color - Intelligence - Mental illness

Question 66

What is a fertilized egg called?

Answer 66

Zygote

Question 67

How are cell membranes structured?

Answer 67

Lipids are at the head and proteins hold the cell's together

Question 68

What are glial cells?

Answer 68

The second most common cell within the brain, also has a myelin sheath - Action potentials occur in Nodes of Ranvier

Question 69

Define saltatory conduction.

Answer 69

When an action potential jumps from node to node

Question 70

What is the effect of Multiple schlerosis?

Answer 70

When myelin becomes destroyed and conduction speed goes down

Question 71

What does an ionotropic receptor do?

Answer 71

Cause ion channels to open and has direct effect on the neuron

Question 72

What does a metabotropic receptor do?

Answer 72

Open ion changes indirectly and has slower but longer-lasting effects

Question 73

Define the difference between central and peripheral nervous systems. 1. Central = brain and spinal cord, bundle of neurons are called tracts 2. Peripheral = nerves everywhere else, bundle of neurons called nerves

Answer 73

1. Central = brain and spinal cord, bundle of neurons are called tracts, clustered neuron cell bodies is nucleus 2. Peripheral = nerves everywhere else, bundle of neurons called nerves, clustered neuron cell bodies in ganglion

Question 74

Define encephalization.

Answer 74

The ratio between the brain's weight and body's weight

Question 75

What are the main pieces of the brainstem?

Answer 75

Medulla Pons Midbrain Thalamus

Question 76

What are the structures of the midbrain?

Answer 76

Dorsal, ventral

Question 77

What are the basic components of the limbic system?

Answer 77

Amygdala Hippocampus Hypothalamus Pituitary Gland

Question 78

What are the main parts of the frontal lobe?

Answer 78

Brocas area Motor cortex Prefrontal cortex

Question 79

What are the main parts of the temporal lobe?

Answer 79

Auditory cortex Language Auditory association areas