Exam 1 Flashcards
What is the primary function of the nucleus?
Cell division and control of genetic information.
What are ribosomes composed of?
RNA-protein complexes (nucleoproteins).
What is the role of the Golgi complex/apparatus?
- Mailing system
- Processes
- packages
proteins into secretory vesicles.
What do lysosomes do?
Maintain cellular health by removing toxic components and useless organelles.
What is the primary function of mitochondria?
Cellular respiration and energy production.
Define cellular metabolism.
All chemical tasks of maintaining essential cellular functions.
What is anabolism?
The energy-using process of metabolism.
What is catabolism?
The energy-releasing process of metabolism.
What is ATP best known for?
Its role as a universal fuel inside living cells.
What is atrophy?
A decrease in cell size.
What is hypertrophy?
An increase in the size of cells.
What is hyperplasia?
An increase in the number of cells.
Define metaplasia.
Replacement of one cell type with another.
What is hypoxia?
The lack of sufficient oxygen within cells.
What can chronic alcohol consumption lead to?
Impaired gut motility and nutrient absorption.
What are free radicals?
Electrically uncharged atoms or groups of atoms with unpaired electrons.
What differentiates apoptosis from necrosis?
Apoptosis is programmed cell death, while necrosis is pathological.
What is the main cause of cellular injury leading to necrosis?
Hypoxia.
What is senescence?
The loss of tissue-repair capacity due to aging.
What is the primary function of hydrostatic pressure?
Facilitates the outward movement of water from capillaries.
What influences oncotic pressure?
Plasma proteins (albumin).
What does the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) respond to?
Reductions in circulating blood volume or blood pressure.
What role does aldosterone play in fluid balance?
Regulates sodium and potassium balance.
What is the function of antidiuretic hormone (ADH)?
Stimulates water retention in response to decreased plasma volume.
What are natriuretic peptides responsible for?
Decreasing blood pressure and increasing sodium and water excretion.
What is hyponatremia?
Low sodium levels in the blood.
What causes hyperkalemia?
Oliguric kidney failure and Addison’s disease.
What is hypocalcemia associated with?
Inadequate intestinal absorption and decreases in PTH and vitamin D levels.
What are the clinical manifestations of hypercalcemia?
Fatigue, weakness, lethargy, and cardiac arrest.
What is phosphate important for?
Energy transfer and oxygen transport in the form of ATP.
What is the influence of parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitonin, and vitamin D on calcium and phosphorous balance?
They regulate calcium and phosphorous balance.
What does phosphate play a crucial role in?
Energy (ATP) and oxygen transport (2,3 DPG).
What are common causes of hypophosphatemia?
- Intestinal malabsorption related to vitamin D deficiency
- Long-term alcohol use disorder
- Increased renal excretion of phosphate associated with hyperparathyroidism
What are the symptoms of severe hypophosphatemia?
- Irritability
- Confusion
- Numbness
- Coma
- Convulsions
- Respiratory failure
- Cardiomyopathies
- Bone resorption (leading to rickets or osteomalacia)
What causes hyperphosphatemia?
- Acute or chronic renal failure
- Long-term use of laxatives or enemas containing phosphates
- Hypoparathyroidism
What are symptoms associated with hyperphosphatemia?
- Symptoms related to low serum calcium levels
- Calcification of soft tissues in lungs, kidneys, joints
What is the function of magnesium in the body?
It is a cofactor in enzymatic reactions, protein synthesis, and neuromuscular excitability.
What are common causes of hypomagnesemia?
- Malnutrition
- Malabsorption syndromes
- Alcohol use disorder
- Urinary losses
What are some symptoms of hypomagnesemia?
- Behavioral changes
- Irritability
- Increased reflexes
- Muscle cramps
- Ataxia
- Nystagmus
- Tetany
- Convulsions
- Tachycardia
What is the primary cause of hypermagnesemia?
Usually renal insufficiency or kidney failure with little or no urine output.
What are the symptoms of hypermagnesemia?
- Lethargy
- Drowsiness
- Loss of deep tendon reflexes
- Nausea and vomiting
- Muscle weakness
- Bradycardia
- Respiratory distress
- Heart block
- Cardiac arrest
True or False: An acid-base imbalance is a disorder in itself.
False
What is the normal pH range the body tries to maintain?
7.35-7.45
What causes respiratory acidosis?
Hypoventilation leading to CO2 retention.
What is the compensatory response in respiratory acidosis?
Increased HCO3− retention by the kidney.
What causes respiratory alkalosis?
Hyperventilation resulting in loss of CO2.
What is the compensatory response in respiratory alkalosis?
Increased HCO3− excretion by the kidney.
What characterizes metabolic acidosis with elevated anion gap?
Increased acid load.
What are some causes of metabolic acidosis with normal anion gap?
- Diarrhea
- Renal failure
- Ingestions (ethylene glycol, salicylates)
- Lactic acidosis
- Uremia
What is the compensatory response in metabolic acidosis?
Increased CO2 excretion by lungs (Kussmaul respirations).
What causes metabolic alkalosis?
- Vomiting
- Nasogastric suctioning
- Diuretic therapy
- Hypokalemia
What is the compensatory response in metabolic alkalosis?
Increased CO2 retention by lungs.
What are alleles?
Different forms of genes located at the same locus on a chromosome.
What does a person’s genotype refer to?
The person’s genetic makeup.
What does the phenotype reflect?
The interaction of genotype and environment.
What is expressivity in genetics?
The extent of variation in phenotype associated with a particular genotype.
What is a mutation?
Any inherited alteration of genetic material.
What is an aneuploid cell?
A cell that does not contain a multiple of 23 chromosomes.
What is the most common lethal autosomal recessive disease in white children?
Cystic fibrosis.
What is the risk of developing breast cancer for women with BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations?
50% to 80% lifetime risk.
What is Turner syndrome?
A condition caused by the presence of a single X chromosome and no homologous X or Y chromosome.
What is the incidence rate?
The number of new cases of a disease during a specific period divided by the population.
What does relative risk measure?
The effect of a specific risk factor as a ratio of incidence rates.
What is recurrence risk in multifactorial inheritance?
Higher if more than one family member is affected.
What is epigenetics?
Modification of gene expression without altering DNA sequence.
What can environmental factors cause in terms of genetics?
Epigenetic modifications affecting gene expression.
