Exam 1 Flashcards
Physiology
The study of how the body works
The study of the function of body parts
Subtypes of physiology
6
A) Pathophysiology-abnormal functioning helps to understand normal functioning
B) Comparative- differences between functions of different species-extreme examples/limits
C) Respirator
D) Cardiovascular
E) Muscle
F) Neurophysiology
6 organizational levels of organization
1: chemical-atoms, molecules, macromolecules, organelles
2. Cellular
3. Tissue
4: Organ
5. Organ system
6: Organismal
Homeostasis
Ability of an organism to maintain a consistent internal environment “ready-state” in response to changing internal or external factors
3 components of a homeostatic system
1: receptor-detects a stimulus (change in variable)->2. control center: integrates input from receptors, initiates change through effectors->3. effector: brings about change
Negative feedback
Example: glucose
Control mechanism where the resulting action is in the opposite direction of the stimulus
Glucose: blood sugar levels increase after a meal->insulin is released. This lowers sugar levels back toward normal
Homeostasis example: body temperature
What is the receptor, control center, and effector?
Stimulus: decreasing body temperature
Receptor: sensory receptors in skin, nerve impulses sent to hypothalamus
Control center: hypothalamus integrates temperature information compared to normal set point, initiates output to blood vessels and skeletal muscles,
Effectors: blood vessels (vasoconstriction), skeletal muscles (shivering)
Glucose homeostasis example
What is the receptor, control center, and effector?
Stimulus: increase in blood sugar
Receptor: pancreas
Control center: pancreas (releases insulin)
Effector: insulin acts on skeletal muscles to promote uptake of glucose
Physiological planes
Coronal, transverse, midsagittal
Coronal, aka frontal, vertical plane that divides the body into front (chest) and back (butt)
Transverse, aka horizontal, divides the body into top (superior) and bottom (inferior)
Midsagittal, aka median, vertical plane that divides body into left and right
What is the simplest level of organization in a human?
Chemical: atoms and molecules are included in this level
Pathology
2 examples
The failure of the body to maintain homeostasis
A) diabetes-elevated blood glucose
B) hypertension- elevated blood pressure
Chemical compounds (ionic)
structures made of ions held together with electrostatic charge
Ion
Two types and examples
Atom with an electrical charge
Anion=negative charge eg. chloride (Cl-), bicarbonate (HCO3-)
Cation=positive charge eg. sodium (Na+), hydrogen (H+), potassium (K+), magnesium (Mg++), calcium (Ca++)
Solution
Solvent
Solute
Solution: mixture of 2+ substances
Solvent: usually a liquid, DISSOLVES 1+ solute
Solute: DISSOLVED in solvent
Acid
Donator or acceptor?
What is the result?
Strong vs. weak, examples
Substance that dissociates/dissolves in water to produce H+ and an anion
Proton donator
Strong acids dissociate more and create more H+ ex. HCl (stomach acid)
Weak acids dissolve less, produce less H+ ex. carbonic acid (H2CO2), lactic acid
Base
Donor or acceptor?
What is the result
Strong vs. weak
Accept H+ atoms in water, proton acceptor
Decreases concentration of H+
Strong bases bind to more H+, lower H+ concentration more, eg. sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Weak bases bind to less H+, leaving more H+ concentration eg. bicarbonate (HCO3-)
pH
What are the pHs of stomach acid, saliva, pure water, blood, and skeletal muscle?
Potential of hydrogen
Measure of relative H+ concentration
Low pH (less than 7)=more acidic=more H+ ions
High pH (more than 7)=more basic=less H+ ions
Stomach acid (HCl)= pH 2-3
Saliva/oral cavity: 6.3-6.6
Pure water= 7 (neutral)
Blood= 7.35-7.45
Skeletal muscle= 7.01
Relationship between H+ (hydrogen) concentration and pH
Inverse
As H+ concentration increases, pH decreases (becomes more acidic)
As H+ concentration decreases, pH increases (becomes more basic)
Neutralization
How do you neutralize a base vs. an acid
Acidic/basic solution becomes neutral (pH 7)
Bases are neutralized by adding acid
Acids are neutralized by adding base
Eg. neutralization of stomach acid by Tums (base)
Buffer
Bicarbonate and carbonic acid
Substance/substances that prevent large pH changes by either accepting H+ from an acid or donating H+ to a base
Bicarbonate (weak base) accepts H+ when an acid is added to blood
Carbonic acid donates H+ to a base added to blood
Biological macromolecules/biomolecules
What elements are included? (CHON P.S)
What are the 4 primary classes?
Always contain hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen
May contain nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus
Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids
Polymer
What biomolecules are polymers?
Made up of monomers (identical/similar repeating molecules)
Carbs, proteins, and nucleic acids are polymers
Lipids
4 categories
- Triglycerides-most abundant, long term energy storage in adipose tissue
Made up of 3 fatty acids and a glycerol - Phospholipids-part of cell membrane, made up of 2 fatty acid tails and a phosphate
- Steroids- 4 carbon rings+side chain
- Eicosanoids-modified 20 carbon fatty acid, involved in inflammation+immune
Fatty acid
Carbon backbone with hydrogen atoms
Carbohydrates (CH2O)
Monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides
Monosaccharides: 3-7 carbon atoms, includes galactose, fructose, glucose
Disaccharides: composed of two monosaccharides, includes sucrose (glucose+fructose), lactose (glucose+galactose), and maltose (glucose+glucole)
Polysaccharides: includes glycogen
Glycogen
Glycogenesis
Glycogenolysis
Most common in the liver and skeletal muscle
Glycogenesis: glucose monomers are absorbed by the liver and bind together to form glycogen
Glycogenolysis: glycogen broken down by the liver to restore blood glucose levels
Protein structure
Primary structure vs. conformation
Amino acid+peptide bond=polymer protein
More than 200 amino acides=protein
Less=peptide
Primary structure=linear sequence of amino acids
Conformation=3D folded shape
Protein functions
- Catalyst (enzymes)
- Transport (blood, cell membrane)
- Defense
- Support (collagen)
- Movement (contractile proteins-actin, myosin)
A chemical compound when added to water that fully dissociates to Anion and H+ would be considered
a strong acid
Which of the three acids listed below is considered a strong acid?
A. Lactic acid
B. Hydrochloric acid
C. Carbonic acid
D. They are all strong acids
Hydrochloric acid (aka stomach acid)
pH 2-3
A solution with a pH of 2 has a lower [H+] than a solution with a pH of 7
T/F
False
Lower pH=more acidic=higher H+ concentration
Which of the following has the highest pH?
A. Stomach
B. Blood
C. Oral cavity
D. Skeletal Muscle
B. Blood
pH 7.35-7.45
Which of the following biological macromolecules does not exist in the body as a polymer?
A. Carbohydrates
B. Lipids
C. Proteins
D. Glucose
B. Lipids
Lactose is..
A. Monosaccharide
B. Disaccharide
C. Polymer
D. Someone who lacks toes
B. Disaccharide
Glucose+galactose
What monomer makes up proteins?
A. Glucose
B. Free Fatty Acids
C. Amino Acids
D. Nucleic Acids
C. Amino acids
What is the storage form of carbohydrate in animal skeletal muscle?
A. Glucose
B. Glycogen
C. Triglycerides
D. Proteins
B. Glycogen
Energy
Characteristics
Potential vs. kinetic
The capacity to do work
Has no mass, does not take up space
Potential energy, eg. a pulled back arrow: stored energy
Kinetic energy, eg. flying arrow: energy of motion
Concentration gradient
Potential + kinetic energy example in cells
Difference in the concentration of a substance between 2 areas
Sodium (Na+) concentration gradient across plasma membrane-more Na+ outside the cell than inside (potential)
Na+ moves from high concentration outside cell to low concentration inside cell (kinetic)
Chemical energy
3 main molecules involved in chemical energy in human body
What is it used for?
Form of potential energy
Energy stored in a molecules chemical bonds
1. Triglycerides (long-term energy storage in adipose tissue)
2. Glucose (stored as glycogen in liver+muscle tissue)
3. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Used for movement, molecule synthesis, and establishing concentration gradients
Forms of kinetic energy (3)
- Electrical-movement of charged particles
- Mechanical- object in motion due to applied force
- Heat- random motion of atoms, ions, molecules
Chemical reaction
Metabolism: anabolism and catabolism
Chemical bonds in a molecule are broken and new ones are formed
Metabolism: all chemical reactions taking place in the body
Anabolism: input of energy to CREATE large molecules (synthesis reactions)
Catabolism: release of energy to BREAK DOWN large molecules (decomposition reactions)
Chemical equation
Summary of the changes of a chemical reaction
Reactants: substances present before reaction
Products: substances formed by reaction
Positive feedback
Effector increases stimulus
Eg. breastfeeding
Five molecules within the body that function primarily in chemical energy exchange
How long can those energy sources maintain exercise?
- ATP: (ADP+Pi)->ATP ~2 seconds of exercise
- Phosphocreatine (PCr): phosphate removed, added to ADP->ATP ~ 10 seconds of exercise
- Glycogen: ~1-2 hours of exercise (high intensity exercise)
- Triglycerides/lipids ~3-7 days of exercise, stored in skin around organs
- Proteins ~10-15% of energy, long duration
Oxidation-reduction reactions
Electron=negatively charged molecule
LEO says GER
Lose Electron Oxidized
Gain Electron Reduced
Type of exchange reaction where electrons move from one chemical structure to another
Oxidation: molecule/atom/ion loses an electron=oxidized
Reduction: molecule/atom/ion gains electron=reduced
What percentage of skeletal muscle is fat?
2-4%
Typically, a person has enough glycogen in their liver and skeletal muscles to sustain how much physical activity?
1-2 hours
Cellular respiration
How are ATP, ADP, and Pi involved?
4 steps
Multistep metabolic pathway where organic molecules are broken down by a series of enzymes, and potential energy is released
Released energy is used to form ATP using ADP and Pi (phosphate)
1. Glycolysis 2. Intermediate state 3. Citric acid cycle 4. electron transport system
Glycolysis (oxidation of glucose)
Where does it occur?
What are the reactants?
What are the products?
What is the net ATP?
Occurs in cytoplasm, anaerobic
1. 2 ATP molecules transfer 2 phosphates to glucose molecule->6 carbon diphosphate+2 ADP
2. 6 carbon diphosphate->2 3 carbon phosphates (pyruvate)+ 2 NADH+4 ATP
Reactants: glucose+oxygen+ADP, Pi, ATP
Products: 2 lactate/pyruvate+2 NADH+2 ATP
Intermediate state
Where does it occur?
What are the reactants?
What are the products?
Occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria- aerobic
Pyruvate dehydrogenase combines pyruvate and CoA->acetyl CoA
CO2 is released from pyruvate->2 hydrogen atoms released->
Hydrogen+NAD+-> NADH
Reactants: pyruvate, coenzyme A (CoA), NAD+
Products: Acetyl CoA, NADH, CO2
Citric acid cycle
Where does it occur?
What are the reactants?
What are the products?
Occurs in matrix of mitochondria
2 acetyl CoA->CO2, NADH, FADH2
Reactants: Acetyl CoA, NAD+, FAD
Products: ATP, NADH, FADH2, CO2
Which ‘carbon skeletons’ are part of glycolysis?
a. glucose, b. ATP, c. lactate, d. pyruvate
A, C, and D
Glucose, lactate, and pyruvate include carbon, ATP does not
Electron transport system
3 step process
Reactants, products
Occurs in outer compartment of mitochondria
1. Electrons from NADH+ and FADH2 transfer to electron carriers, protons cross membrane from matrix to outer compartment
2. H+ proton gradient->H+ protons travel back into matrix, crossing membrane through ATP synthase
3. Kinetic energy from proton movement allows ATP synthase to generate ATP from ADP and Pi
4. Electrons go to terminal electron receptor oxygen->water
Reactants: NADH, FADH, ADP, Pi
Products: NAD+, FAD, ATP, Water
Oxidative phosphorylation
Process of using coenzymes to transfer energy to create ATP
Describe the production of lactate and the possible fates of lactate when it accumulates
Pyruvate is converted to lactate with the transfer of two electrons and hydrogen from NADH
NADH->NAD+
Lactate transported to other cells for storage or generate ATP
Fatty acid oxidzation
Beta-oxidization breaks down fatty acids into acetyl CoA, which can enter at the citric acid cycle
Protein oxidization
Broken down into amino acids, nitrogen group removed (deamination)
True of False lactate/lactic acid only accumulates when there is insufficient oxygen in the cell?
False
What is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport system?
Oxygen
Molecule vs. ion
Atom
Molecule: group of two or more atoms that are held together by attractive forces known as chemical bonds- NEUTRAL
Ion: a positively or negatively charged particle(s)- CHARGED
Atom- smallest unit into which matter can be divided without the release of electrically charged particles
Chemical equation for cellular respiration
C6H12O6+6O2->6CO2+6H2O+ATP
Glucose and oxygen->carbon dioxide, water, and ATP
Range of sizes and shapes for human cells
Average, neuron, skeletal muscle, red blood cell, capillaries, mitochondria, epithaleal
Average cell size=30 microns
Average range from 1-100 microns
Neurons ~ 1 meter, long and branching to receive and transmit information
Skeletal muscle 1-600 millimeters, long and tube-like to attach to bone
RBC 7 microns, concave to increase surface area and fold over
Mitochondria: 1 um
Epithelial cells: cube shaped kidney cells, column shaped intestinal cells
Components of a cell
Plasma membrane, microvilli, cilia, mitochondria, lysosome, rough endoplasmic reticulum, nucleus
- Plasma membrane: lipid bilayer, provides structure and barrier
1a. Microvilli increase PM surface area for absorption/secretion
1b. Cilia- expel substances from cell - Mitochondria: produces ATP
- Lysosome: “garbage truck”
- RER: production and processing of proteins
- Nucleus: genetic information
Structure and function of the plasma membrane
4 functions
Lipids and proteins
Inter and extracellular fluid
50% lipids, 50% proteins
Main component is phospholipid bilayer
Extracellular/interstitial fluid and intercellular fluid/cytosol
Functions: physical barrier between cell and interstitial fluid, selective permeability, electrochemical gradient, communication through receptors
Electrochemical gradient
Sodium and potassium
Inside the cell is more negative relative to outside the cell (-70mv)
More sodium outside cell than in, more potassium inside cell than out
Differentiate between the two types/classes of plasma membrane proteins based on their
relative position in the plasma membrane
Integral vs. peripheral proteins
Integral proteins span entire membrane and embedded in phospholipid bilayer
Peripheral proteins anchor only to one side
Name three major roles played by membrane proteins
- Transport- regulate movement of substances across membrane-channels, carrier proteins, and pumps
- Enzymes- catalyze reactions
- Receptors- communication, bind ligands
Describe passive transport and distinguish between simple and facilitated diffusion
Passive transport requires no external energy-substances move DOWN their concentration gradient from high to low
Simple diffusion: small, nonpolar (noncharged) molecules like oxygen, CO2 move down their concentration gradient
Facilitated diffusion: channel mediated- polar (charged) molecules move down gradient through water-filled channels eg. sodium, potassium
Facilitated diffusion: carrier mediated- carrier proteins change shape to transport small, polar molecules eg. glucose
Describe the factors the influence diffusion
- Temperature-higher temp.=faster diffusion
- Gradient-steeper gradient=faster diffusion
- Surface area- larger=slower
- Size of particles-larger=slower
- Distance-larger=slower
Osmosis
Process by which water moves through a semipermeable membrane from a an area of higher to lower water concentration
Another name for extracellular fluid is interstitial fluid
T/F
True
Which of the following plasma membrane proteins are
anchored to a single side of the membrane?
A. peripheral
B. receptor
C. integral
D. transport
A. Peripheral
Which of the following plasma membrane proteins can
allow ions to move across the membrane?
A. peripheral
B. receptor
C. integral
D. transport
D. Transport
NOT integral, not all integral proteins allow ions through membrane
Dr. Towse’s office hours and physical office location
2174 Biomedial physical science building
Tuesday 3-5pm
Lauren’s office hours and the physical location of ULA office hours
Monday 10am
2240 B BPS
Date and time of the final exam
Wednesday April 30, 10-11:20a
