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Biopsychology > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Define dualism. Who proposed this theory?

A

Dualism - the soul, mind, or spirit is distinct from body or brain.
Spirit and brain control our thoughts and actions.

Proposed by Rene Descartes
“I think, therefore I am.”

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2
Q

Define reductionism. Name the leading scientist who championed this theory.

A

Reductionism – only the body and the brain control thoughts and actions.
Championed by Thomas Hobbes:
Consciousness is a by-product of the brain’s activity - no soul or “mind”.

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2
Q

Describe the specific parts of a neuron and the role of myelin.

A
  1. Dendrites: branched, tree-like structures attached the the soma; receive information from the terminal buttons of other neurons
  2. Soma/Cell Body: contains the nucleus; organizes messages from dendrites and “decides” whether neuron should convey messages to other neurons
  3. Axon: long, thin, cylindrical structure that carries electrical messages known as action potentials to terminal buttons.
  4. Terminal Buttons: the buds at the end of a branch of an axon; form synapses where they release neurotransmitters that tell other neurons or muscles what to do
    * Myelin: a sheath that surrounds axons and insulates them, preventing messages from spreading between adjacent axons (if disrupted, messages will not be carried correctly)
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3
Q

What are the main contributions of evolutionary theory to Biopsychology?

A

Evolutionary theory - Human brains are not qualitatively different from other animals.

  1. By studying brain function and behavior in animals, we can better understand human behavior.
  2. Many genes are shared between organisms.
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4
Q

Identify the types and functions of glial cells.

A
  1. Schwann Cells: insulate axons in the peripheral nervous system
  2. Oligodendrocytes: insulate neurons in the central nervous system
  3. Astrocytes: bring nutrients to brain neurons, remove waste, and insulate synapses
  4. Microglia: assist in healing from brain injury
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5
Q

What is the blood-brain barrier?

A

A semipermeable barrier between the blood and the brain produced by the cells in the walls of the brain’s capillaries.

  • Restricts entry of toxic substances into the brain
  • Also restricts entry of potentially therapeutic drugs into the brain
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6
Q

Recognize the names of each cellular organelle.

A
  1. ) Mitochondria
  2. ) Golgi apparatus
  3. ) Cytoplasm
  4. ) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
  5. ) Microtubules
  6. ) Lysosomes
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7
Q

What is a chromosome composed of?

A

Genes

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8
Q

What is DNA?

A

Deoxyribonucleic Acid- is mainly composed of four nucleic acids or bases: cytosine - guanine, adenine – thymine
The C-G are always paired together as a rung and the A-T are always paired together as a rung.
Genes are composed of DNA

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9
Q

How is DNA transcribed into RNA?

A

Gene transcription: when a gene needs to be turned into a protein, the double helix unwinds.
A copy of the DNA sequence of the gene is made into RNA.

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10
Q

How is RNA translated into a protein?

A

The RNA is edited into messenger RNA (mRNA) and then sent to the ribosome.
The ribosome translates the mRNA three nucleic acids at a time.
These groups of three are known as codons or triplets.
Individual codons specify what individual amino acid should be used to make the proteins.

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11
Q

What is a protein?

A

A protein is a large strand of amino acids that can provide structure to a cell or perform functions for the cell by acting as enzymes.
Enzymes control chemical reactions.

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12
Q

What are some different types of mutations?

A
  • Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)/Point Mutation: Change in DNA (e.g., C changed to G) from the normal sequence
  • Insertions of DNA into the normal sequences.
  • Deletions of DNA from the normal sequence.
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13
Q

What kind of mutation occurs in Huntington’s Disease?

A

Progressive neurodegenerative disorder due to mutation in single gene that leads to problems with thinking, speaking, and swallowing.
Gene on chromosome 4 codes for a protein known as huntingtin.
The gene contains a DNA sequence, C-A-G, that normally repeats 10 – 25x at the end of the gene.
In HD patients, the C-A-G sequence is repeated 40 or more times.

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14
Q

What are the two main parts of a gene?

A

The strand of DNA that makes up a gene can be divided into a regulatory region and a coding region.

  1. ) Regulatory region contains part of the gene that controls its expression.
  2. ) Coding region, also known as an exon, contains the part of the gene that is transcribed into RNA.
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15
Q

What are alleles? What is meant by a dominant or recessive gene?

A

Every person has two copies of each gene (except on the sex chromosome).
Each copy is known as an allele.
Common changes in the DNA sequence of a gene are known as alleles. (ex. blue eyes rather than brown eyes)
Dominant allele – if one copy of this form of the gene is present, then it gets expressed.
Recessive allele – will only get expressed if both copies of the gene are present.

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16
Q

What is a transcription factor? How do mutations in FOXP2 affect behavior?

A

transcription factors are proteins that bind to regulatory regions and alter the rate of gene expression.

The FOXP2 protein is a transcription factor.
Mutation in FOXP2 has been associated with language deficits.

By regulating gene expression early in life, FOXP2 may orchestrate the expression of other genes involved in brain development

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17
Q

What is meant by alternative splicing of mRNA?

A

RNA is edited before it is translated into a protein.

Alternative Splicing is the process by which Pre-RNA is edited.
Pre-mRNA contains complimentary copies of each exon.
The Final product of editing is known as a RNA splice variant.

*Allows for different functional proteins to emerge from the same gene.

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18
Q

What’s wrong with the DISC RNA in schizophrenia?

A

Exons 3, 7, and 8 of the RNA from the gene “Disrupted in Schizophrenia” or DISC are more likely to be missing from the DISC mRNA in schizophrenia.

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19
Q

What is post-translational processing?

A

Once protein is made, it can be broken down into many different smaller proteins or peptides with different functions.

A. Precursor Protein –> B. Enzyme cuts Precursor –> C. Three New Proteins or Peptides

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20
Q

How might Post-Translational Processing go wrong in Alzheimer’s Disease?

A

The amyloid precursor protein (APP) is cut incorrectly by an enzyme, causing the build-up of a peptide known as beta amyloid (Aβ) in the AD brain.

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21
Q

Define the terms “genotype” and “phenotype.”

A

Genotype : refers to the DNA sequence of a gene
vs.
Phenotype: refers to the behavioral manifestation of genotype

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23
Q

Compare communication within and between neurons.

A

Messages within neurons have an “electrical” composition. The message is digital.

Messages between neurons have a “chemical” composition. The message is analog.

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24
Q

What is meant by a membrane potential and what are the principal ions involved in maintaining them?

A

A membrane potential is the relative difference in electrical charge (i.e., ions) between the inside and outside of a cell.
Principle ions: Na+ =sodium, K+ =potassium, Ca+2 =calcium, Cl- =chloride

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25
Q

What are three reasons that explain why the resting membrane potential is negative?

A
  1. Sodium-potassium pumps: Three Na+ ions out/ two K+ ions in
  2. Most proteins are anions
  3. Ions maintain concentration gradients: ions seek areas of lesser concentrations
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26
Q

Define depolarization (EPSP) and hyperpolarization (IPSP).

A

Depolarization/Excitatory PSP(EPSP): an INCREASE in the membrane potential; due to brief influx of Na+ or Ca2+ into dendrite

Hyperpolarization/Inhibitory PSP(IPSP): a DECREASE in the membrane potential; due to a brief influx of Cl- into the dendrite

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27
Q

Describe the six steps involved in an action potential.

A
  1. Summation of EPSP’s in cell body at beginning of axon
  2. Threshold of excitation is met
  3. Na+ enters the neuron
  4. K+ leaves the neuron
  5. Na+ stops entering the neuron
  6. K+ stops leaving the neuron
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28
Q

What is the All-or-None Law?

A

either an action potential occurs or it does not; in a given neuron, every AP achieves the same voltage.

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29
Q

Describe the three different types of ion channels.

A
  1. Protein-gated ion channel: a protein called kinase adds a phosphate molecule to the ion channel to open it.
  2. Chemically-gated ion channel: a neurotransmitter or another chemical binds to an ion channel to open it.
  3. Voltage-gated ion channel: an ion channel opens when a specific membrane potential is achieved (Na+ channels on axons during APs).
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30
Q

Compare phrenology vs. Equipotence.

A

Phrenology: Specific mental functions are regulated by specific brain regions; the size of these brain regions can be detected by examining skull shape.
Equipotence: Each mental function requires multiple brain regions.

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31
Q

How are neurons arranged in the cortex?

A

Neurons are arranged into six LAYERS or rows in the cortex. The neurons connected across the six layers make up functional units known as COLUMNS.

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32
Q

What features of the cortex might distinguish humans from other animals?

A
  • The cortex takes up the majority (77%) of the human brain (…which isn’t much more than the Chimp at 76%)
  • The lateral prefrontal cortex might be specific to humans
  • There are more areas of premotor cortex in humans
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33
Q

What are the names and functions of each of the four lobes of the cerebral cortex?

A
  1. Frontal Lobe: sequencing, inhibition, speech, movement
  2. Parietal Lobe: visual/spatial abilities and bodily sensations
  3. Occipital Lobe: visual information
  4. Temporal Lobe: recognition of objects and places, hearing
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34
Q

What are the names and functions of the three areas of the Limbic System?

A
  1. Hippocampus: encoding of new information
  2. Amygdala: activation of fear and aversive memory
  3. Cingulate: recognizes cognitive or emotional conflicts
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35
Q

What are the names and functions of the two areas of the basal ganglia?

A
  1. Caudate Nucleus: regulates execution of movement and habits
  2. Nucleus Accumbens (NA): becomes active during states of pleasure
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36
Q

What are the functions of the Thalamus?

A

The Thalamus acts as a relay between sensory input and the cortex

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37
Q

What are the functions of the hypothalamus?

A

The hypothalamus regulates endocrine function as well as metabolic functions like libido, body temperature, hunger, and thirst. It also controls our fight or flight response and coordinates circadian rhythms

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38
Q

What are the functions of the Pituitary Gland?

A

Also called the “Master Endocrine Gland,” the pituitary gland regulates hormone release from other glands. It is regulated by the hypothalamus.

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39
Q

What are the names of the five structures of the midbrain?

A
  1. Superior and Inferior Colliculus
  2. Reticular Formation
  3. Substantia Nigra
  4. Ventral Tegmental Area
  5. Periaqueductal Gray Matter
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40
Q

What are the functions of the Cerebellum? What is the name of a condition associated with damage to or malfunction in the Cerebellum?

A

The Cerebellum is a hindbrain region that regulates motor learning and coordination.
Condition: Ataxia

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41
Q

What are the functions of the sensory and motor neurons of the spinal cord?

A

Sensory Neurons: Bring tactile and pain signals into the spinal cord
Motor Neurons: Send signals out from the spinal cord regarding movement

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42
Q

What are the functions of the interneurons of the spinal cord?

A

Interneurons either excite or inhibit motor neurons, causing or preventing muscular contractions in reaction to sensory input.
Inhibitory interneurons within the gray matter break up reflex arcs (Which create direct sensory to motor neuron connection)

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43
Q

What are the functions of the peripheral nervous system?

A

It is composed of spinal and cranial nerves, and includes the Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems

44
Q

What are the functions of the Vagal Nerve?

A

The Vagal Nerve plays a big part in parasympathetic activity by:
-reducing activity in internal organs
and
-providing the brain with feedback regarding their activity

45
Q

What are the functions of the sympathetic nervous system?

A

Like the gas pedal in a car, the sympathetic nervous system accelerates functions needed for responding quickly to stress, like breathing, heart rate, and pupil dilation, and slows functions not immediately necessary like digestion.

46
Q

What are the functions of the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

The parasympathetic nervous system is like the brake pedal of a car, counteracting the sympathetic nervous system after stress has passed. It is also active during of periods of “sex, sleep, and sustenance.”

47
Q

What is one reason why the resting membrane potential is not TOO negative?

A
  1. Electrostatic gradients: ions seek areas of opposite charges
    - K+ stays in the cell based on its attraction to the negative charges within the cell.
48
Q

What is the Rate Law?

A

The frequency of action potentials (or firing) determines the strength of responding.

  • More APs = More intense responses
  • If more neurons fire, there will be more intense responses.
49
Q

What are the functions of the Superior and inferior colliculi?

A

The superior colliculus regulates reflexive responses to vision.
The inferior colliculus regulates reflexive responses to hearing.

50
Q

What is the function of the Reticular Formation?

A

It Controls Bodily Arousal

*believed to be the oldest part of the brain

51
Q

What is the function of the Substantia Nigra? What is a side effect that may occur when Antipsychotic drugs interfere with this brain structure?

A

Function: Purposeful movements

Side effect: motor issues

52
Q

What is the function of the Ventral Tegmental Area?

A

Pleasure

53
Q

What is the function of the Periaqueductal Gray Matter? What type of medications target this structure?

A

Function: Pain sensitivity

Medication Type: Opiates target the PG when used to create less sensitivity to pain

54
Q

split brains

A

.

55
Q 
This structure is key for production of language.
A. corpus callosum
B. left hemisphere
C. right hemisphere
D. pineal body
A

B. left hemisphere

56
Q

A split-brain patient views a fragrant red flower with her left eye and smells the flower through her left nostril. What is the person likely to report?
A. She can name the flower’s shape and color but she can’t identify the smell of the flower.
B. She can report on the smell of the flower but she can’t identify its shape or color.
C. She can’t report on the smell of the flower or its shape or color.
D. She can report on both the smell of the flower and its shape and color.

A

.?

57
Q 
Transection of the corpus callosum is used to \_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
A. treat stuttering
B. treat epilepsy
C. treat obesity
D. improve memory
A

B. treat epilepsy

58
Q

Natural selection 9-12

A

The process by which inherited traits that confer a selective advantage (increase an animal’s likelihood to live and reproduce) become more prevalent in the population.

59
Q

Define evolution 9-12

A

A gradual change in the structure and physiology of plant and animal species, generally producing more complex organisms as a result of natural selection

60
Q

Define Neoteny. p.9-12

A

A slowing of the process of maturation, allowing more time for growth; an important factor in the development of large brains.

61
Q

What is saltatory conduction?

A

Conduction of action potentials by myelinated axons. The action potential appears to jump from one node of Ranvier to the next.

62
Q

development of the cns p.54-58

A

.

63
Q

evolution of the cns

A

.

64
Q

List methods for studying the structure of the living human brain

A

Computerized Tomography (CT)
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)

65
Q

The use of a device that employs a computer to analyze data obttained by a scanning beam of X-rays to produce a two-dimensional picture of a “slice” through the body

A

Computerized Tomography CT

66
Q

A technique whereby the interior of the body can be accurately imaged; involves the interaction between radio waves and a strong magnetic field.

A

Magnetic Resonance Imaging MRI

67
Q

An imaging method that uses a modified MRI scanner to reveal bundles of myelinated axons in the living human brain.

A

Diffusion Tensor Imaging DTI

68
Q

Why is language ability considered to be key for the development of consciousness?

A

Because language allows us to send and receive messages about our thoughts in our own heads

69
Q

Which of the following is an example of reductionism?
A. A fear of dogs is the result of classical conditioning.
B. Fear is best expalined as an example of operant conditioning.
C. Feeding occurs when certain chemicals are released in the brain.
D. Homeostasis explains why we become tolerant to repeated drug experiences.

A

C. Feeding occurs when certain chemicals are released in the brain.

70
Q

What supports the idea that the size of the human brain is largely responsible for the adaptive advantage enjoyed by human beings?

A

Neuron density analysis shaow that while humans may not proportionately have the largest brains, they do have brains that are mush more dense in neurons than other animals with large brains.?

71
Q 
The ability of our ancestors to compete with other speceis involved \_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
A. poor linguistic ability.
B. heavier fur.
C. excellent night vision.
D. a larger brain.
A

D. a larger brain.

72
Q

The principle that the best way to understand a biological phenomenon (a behavior or a physiological structure) is to try to understand its useful functions for the organism.

A

Functionalism

73
Q

Explain what scientists look for in a trait like the long neck of a giraffe when they employ functionalism?
A. Scientists look to see how the long neck makes the giraffe different from other organisms.
B. Scientists look to see how the long neck protects the giraffe from predators.
C. Scientists look to see how the long neck helps the giraffe to build shelter.
D. Scientists look to see how the long neck helps the giraffe to survive and have offspring.

A

D. Scientists look to see how the long neck helps the giraffe to survive and have offspring.

74
Q

How do different hominids compare with respect to the makeup of their DNA?
A. All hominids are remarkably similar.
B. All hominids are completely different.
C. All hominids share about 50% of their DNA.
D. All hominids share about 10% of their DNA.

A

A. All hominids are remarkably similar.

75
Q

List methods used to record neural activity

A
  1. Single-unit recording with microelectrodes
  2. EEGs with macroelectrodes
  3. Magnetoencephalography
76
Q

List functional imaging methods used to record the brain’s metabolic and synaptic activity.

A

PET: Positron Emission Tomography
fMRI: Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

77
Q

List the methods used to stimulate neural activity in the brain.

A

Chemical stimulation with excitatory amino acid:
This method of stimulating neural activity stimulates only neurons near the tip of the electrode and axons passing through the region.

Electrical Stimulation: stimulates neurons near the tip of the electrode and axons passing through the region.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): Stimulation of the cerebral cortex by means of magnetic fields produced by passing pulses of electicity through a coil of wire placed next to the skull; interferes with the functions of the brain region that is stimulated.

78
Q

Which method is used to record electrical activity of single neurons?

A

Glass or metal microelectrodes: Metal microelectrodes can be implanted permanently to record neural activity as the animal moves

79
Q

Which method is used to record electrical activity of regions of the brain?

A

Metal macroelectrodes: In humans, these are usually attached to the scalp with a special paste.

80
Q

Which method is used to record magnetic fields induced by neural activity?

A

Magnetoencephalography; uses a neuromagnometer, which contains an array of SQUIDS
Can determine the location of a group of neurons firing synchronously.

81
Q

An imaging method used to record metabolic activity in the brain; reveals the localization of a radioactive tracer (2-DG) in a living brain.

A

Positron Emission Tomography PET

82
Q

Measures regional metabolic activity of the human brain; it has better spacial and temporal resolution than the PET scan.

A

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging fMRI

83
Q

What are the two advantages of Saltatory Conduction?

A
  1. Myelinated axons expend much less energy to maintain their sodium balance.
  2. Conduction of an action potential is faster in a myelinated axon because the transmission between the nodes is very fast—-> increased speed enables us to react faster and think faster.
84
Q

A hollow tube, closed at the rostral end, that forms from ectodermal tissue early in embryonic development; serves as the origin of the central nervous system.

A

Neural Tube

85
Q

The outermost layer of gray matter of the cerebral hemispheres

A

Cerebral Cortex

86
Q

Cells of the ventricular zone that divide and give rise to cells of the central nervous system.

A

Progenitor cells

87
Q

A layer of cells that line the inside of the neural tube; contains progenitor cells .

A

Ventricular Zone (VZ)

88
Q

Symmetrical division

A

Division of a progenitor cell that gives rise to two identical progenitor cells; increases the size of the ventricular zone and hence the brain that develops from it.

89
Q

Asymmetrical division

A

Division of a progenitor cell that gives rise to another progenitor cell and a neuron, which migrates away from the ventricular zone toward its final resting place in the brain.

90
Q

Radial glia

A

Special glia with fibers that grow radially outward from the ventricular zone to the surface of the cortex; provide guidance for neurons migrating outward during brain development.

91
Q

Death of a cell caused by a chemical signal that activates a genetic mechanism inside the cell

A

Apoptosis

92
Q

What is neurogenesis?

A

The production of new neurons within the brain.

93
Q

Researchers once believed that neurogenesis could not occur in the adult brain. Current research shows that neurogenesis can occur in what two areas of the adult brain?

A
  1. The Hippocampus: primarily involved in learning

2. The Olfactory Bulb: involved in the sense of smell

94
Q

Mitochondria

A

An organelle that provides cell with energy

95
Q

An organelle that packages proteins to protect them within cells

A

Golgi apparatus

96
Q

fluid within the cell; contains many enzymes that can activate or breakdown other proteins

A

Cytoplasm

97
Q

*Contain RIBOSOMES: Small organelles that are responsible for synthesizing new proteins.

A

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

98
Q

literally tubes within cells that transport proteins or packages of proteins over long distances (in neurons they are usually found in axons)

A

Microtubules

99
Q

Organelles that basically serve as the “trash can” of the cell; involved in removal of waste from the cell

A

Lysosomes

100
Q

If one compares animal brains to human brains, one can state that:

A

Most mammalian brains have all the same regions that are found in humans.

101
Q

Gene expression can be turned on or off by:

A

transcription factors

102
Q

A single nucleotide polymorphism refers to a:

A

change in the sequence of nucleic acids within a given gene sequence

103
Q

Rene Descartes is often described as a dualist. This means that:

A

he thought that our behavioral and mental life were determined by a soul and the brain

104
Q

Receptors for the neurotransmitter glutamate allow calcium and sodium into neurons. One form of the receptor can come in two varieties - one called flip that allows calcium into the cell and another called flop that does not allow calcium into the cell. The difference in the two receptors is based on how the mRNA for the receptor gets edited before the protein is synthesized. The process by which proteins with different functions can emerge from the same gene is know as:

A

Alternative Splicing

105
Q

Scientists have determined that the shape of the hippocampus, a brain region critical to learning and memory, is altered in people with schizophrenia. What type of imaging technique is used to analyze the shape or structure of specific brain regions?

A

Magnetic Resonance Imaging or MRI

106
Q

A voltage-gated ion channel is one that opens or closes depending on:

A

the membrane potential

Biopsychology (6 decks)

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