Exam 1 Flashcards
Subjective vs Objective
Subjective - Internal interpretations
Objective - True external Stimuli as it were
Top down vs Bottom up
Top down - Using memory context to process external stimuli
Bottom up - Using external stimuli immediately
Illusions
A way to investigate the subjective nature of perception
Gestalt principles
Organizations of systems changes perceptions
Figure ground
Being able to identify shapes within shapes, chalice or faces
Continuity
Things that move in a line are perceived to be a continuation of each other even if they’re separate shapes
Inclusiveness
Shapes within shapes
Proximity
Percieve things as together when theyre close
Similarity
similar things are grouped
Closure
lines that make up a shape, even when theyre not making up the whole shape
Illusory Contours
Perceived edges made up of shapes
Lateral inhibition
Activation of Photoreceptive fields in illusions, fake gray dots
Photoreceptive field
Area where photoreceptors get their stimuli
Direct Perception
Gibsonian Approach, more bottom up processing than Gestalt
Perceptual array
All of your senses add to your perception
Optic Flow
Ability to detect apparent motion
Invariant
Structure in the array of perceptual information that specifies state of the world
Expansion of the optic array
Eyes get wider as things approach
Occlusion
Depth cue when an object blocks another, we understand its still there
Size constancy
Relative size comparison
Affordance
Relationship of the self to the environment that enables action
Visual Cliff
Baby fall teehee
Pattern recognition
Plays into a more Top-Down approach to perception, needed to make sense of the world, schema
Template theory
We make sense of the world through past experiences with those specific objects; we see one chair and only know that as “a chair”, not the concept of it
Feature analysis
People see a set of “critical” features
Recognition by Component theory
Decomposing objects by smaller, simpler shapes (geons)
Face perception
Developemental
Orientation
Neurological evidence
Geons
simple 2d or 3d shapes
Prosopagnosia
Face Blindness, temporal lobe
Agnosia
Inability to process specific sensory information
Point light displays
Experiment where we assumed we can detect patterns through motion
Two pathways of perception
What - Ventral part of the brain: recognizes objects
Where - Dorsal part of the brain: spatial awareness of objects, landmark study
Speech segmentation
Space in-between words to differentiate them
Unconscious Inference
We infer how objects “are” in the world by how much it makes sense
Scene schema
Items have context when visualized
Selective Attention
Choosing what to pay attention to
Divided attention
Attempting to pay attention to multiple stimuli at once
Cocktail party effect
Being able to single out a voice or stimuli in the midst of many
Dichotic Listening
Different stimuli directly into each ear
Shadowing
Repeating words as they are heard in the dichotic listening task
Attended
Stimuli that is actively wanting to be processed
Unattended
Everything else that is not consciously being payed attention to
Subliminal
Type of unconscious stimuli that is too fast/quiet to consciously be perceived
Early filter models of attention
Brain chooses what to listen to, then filters out everything else; we shouldn’t have a conscious idea of what was left out
Later filter models of attention
“leaky filter model”, both attended and unattended messages are filtered through, but attended is way stronger, based on meaning
Capacity models of attention
Amount of information people can handle; limit
Load theory of attention
Difficulty of task; high load vs low load
Stroop test
red green but different lol; reading words has become highly ingrained that its hard to say the color
Automatic vs Controlled process
Automatic - Stroop word reading
Controlled - Active perception, saying color, working past automatic
Parallel vs serial processing
Serial: one word at a time
Parallel: Taking in a scene all at once
Visual source
Feature integration theory
Single Features automatically observed
Conjunction
Feature search
Single features easier to spot
Conjunction Search
Searching for features will make up one object, serially
Illusory conjunction
Errors can occur with needing so much attention
The binding problem
Combination of background, emotional stimuli, and objects
Satisfaction of Search
Finding one item decreased chance of finding another
Target frequency
Less frequently things show up, less likely to spot
Vigilance
Searching attention drops after some time, “definitely within 15 min, more complex tasks after 5 min”
Inattention Blindness
Difficulty detecting change when paying attention to something
Change blindness
Difficulty detecting change in environment
Perceptual Load
Difficulty of a task
Preattentive stage
Automatic, unconscious, and effortless stage of attention
Visual Scanning
Movement of the eyes from one location to the other
Attentional Blink
testing ability to detect stimuli presented in rapid succession
Attention Capture
Attention being captured
Bottleneck model
Humans are only able to have a limited amount of attentional resources
Sensory store
All sensory inputs, 500ms to 2 seconds
Short term memory
Immediate store of memory, very short, attention, 20-30 seconds
Long term memory
Encoded memory, able to be retrieved, infinite space
Iconic memory
Sight memory
Echoic memory
Auditory
Rehearsal
Repeating a stimulus
Encoding
Storing into long term memory
Retrieval
Process of remembering thigs from long term
Storage modality
sensory, short term, long term]
7 +/- 2
number of things that can actively be remembered in short term memory
Serial Position Curve
Curve showing the outcome of primacy and recency effects
Primacy Effect
Remembering things you learned at the beginning
Recency Effect
Remembering things you learned most recently
Anterograde Amnesia
Inability to encode new memories
Retrograde amnesia
Inability to retrieve past memories
Working Memory
keeps things for further processing, e.g. math problems
Phonological Loop
Stores verbal info
Used for words
Used for numbers
Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad
Stores visual info
Used for imagery
Spatial tasks
Central Executive
Allocates capacity
Retrieves info
Thinks
Consciousness
Chunk
Grouping pieces of information together, making it easier to store
Memory Span
Number of things humans are able to remember
Phonological Similarity Effect
Confusion of sounds that sound similar
Perseveration
Repeatedly preforming the same “rule” unable to follow a new one; disconnect with attention
Articulatory Suppression
Speaking interferes with rehearsal
Decay
over time short term memory fades
Interference (Proactive and Retroactive)
Proactive: Previously learned material makes it hard to learn new material
Retroactive: New material makes it hard to remember past material
Word Length Effect
Memory for short words is easier than it is for long words
Digit Span
Number of digits a person can remember
Episodic Memory
“Memory”
Remembering first time you rode a bike
Semantic Memory
“Knowledge”
Knowing how to ride a bike
Procedural Memory
“Skills”
Riding a bike
Distinctiveness
Implicit Memory
Doing things without remembering how we know we can do them
Explicit Memory
Memories we are aware of
Memory Dissociations
Remember or recollective state
Knowing or semantic activation
Priming
Skill Learning
Mirror tracing
Imagining the future
Autobiographical memory
Full episodic, echoic memories of ones life
Organization
Levels of processing
Incidental vs intentional learning
S
Self relevant processing
Generation effect
Producing own things to remember are easier to reconstruct than just consuming the information
Survival processing
Things that are helpful for survivial are easier to retain and reconstruct
Paired Association tests
Imagery effects in memory
Binding in memory
B
Baker Baker phenomenon
Easier to remember someones proffesion that their name
Rehearsal
Mental rehearsal mechanism to retain information in short-term memory
Distributed vs massed practice
Studying in intervals is more benificial than cramming
Testing effect
You learn things better when you test yourself than just reading the textbook
Collaborative Inhibition
Phenomenon that when several people work together to produce a single memory report, they typically produce fewer items than when the unique items in the individual reports of the same number of participants are combined
Consolidation
The process that transforms new memories
into a state in which they are more resistant to disruption.
Consoliation Disruption
Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve
Nonsense syllables
Overlearning
Decay
Interference
Proactive interference
Retroactive interference
Encoding Specifity
Context Dependant Memory
Mood Dependent Memory
State Dependent Memory
Free Recall
Cued Recall
Recognition
Source Monitoring Theory
Source memory
Feeling of Familiarity
Long term potentiation
Reconsolidation
Transfer appropriate processing
Schema
Organized knowledge structures
Trace or Engram
Each experience leaves a trace of a memory for future use
Schema Effects on :
Encoding
Storage
Reconstruction
Encoding: depends on what schema is active, directs encoding and extracts gist
Storage: New info is stored in schema, updated by later add-ons, constantly changing
Reconstruction: Combination of what remains and schema info, attitudes matter
Omissions
Leave things out
Could be random
Could be selective to leave the gist
Intrusions
Add material
Fill in gaps, rationalize
Gist
Base idea
Cognitive dissonance
Two different ideas being inhabited in the schema, causing conflict
Implicit theories of change and consistency
Know current view, plus theory, equals view of previous state, especially if there is no change
Scripts
Concept of the sequence of actions that occur during a specific experience, grocery store
Person Schemas
person egg
Stereotypes
False alarm
Generalizing from Eyewitness studies
Discriminating True from false memories
Plausibility
Memory Construction
Source memory Errors
Flashbulb memories
Accuracy and Flashbulb memories
Repression
Dissociation
Retrospective, Prospective, and Case studies
Forgot-it-all-along effect
Easterbrook hypothesis or Attention Narrowing
Arousal and attention
Inverted-U curve
Weapon focus
Place learning
Response learning
Shape heuristics
Rotation Heuristics
Alignment Heuristic
Symmetry Heuristic
90 degree angle heuristic
Using maps
Dual representation of maps
Doorway effect
Behaviorist Approach
Restructuring
Insight
Gestalt
Functional Fixedness
Mental Set
Algorithms
Analogy
Surface Features vs Structural Features
Expertise
Creativity
Divergent thinking
Incubation
Stereotype threat
Means-Ends Approach
Initial State
Goal State
Obstacles
Analogical Problem solving
Problem space
Normative Model
Utility Theory
People are rational
People use logic
Utility Theory
Assigning levels of utility to certain outcomes, then choosing which one has the most “utility”
Additive Models
Consider options
Make a list of important features, then rate each option
Syllogisms
Basic form of deductive reasoning
All birds are animals
All animals eat food
All birds eat food
Conditional Reasoning
Only two premises
If i cry, my shirt will be wet
I cried, therefore my shirt is wet
Antecedent
If x, then y
x, therefore y
Consequent
If x, then y
y, therefore x
Wason Card Task
If blank then blank example, turning over x cards to see which are needed to validate a set rule
Choice Behavior
Process of thinking when making a choice
Matching Law
Rate of reinforcement matches the quality and value of the response
Delayed Gratification
Choosing sooner, less gratifying choices versus choosing later, more gratifying choices
Ainslie-Rachlin Model
Graph showing the hyperbolic rate of choice for delayed gratification
Confirmation Bias
Selectively look for information that reinforces our hypothesis and ignore information that argues against it
Representative Heuristic
Shortcut in decision making, relating the active choice to things we already know about/have experienced
Conjunction Fallacy
The combination of two effects cannot be more probable than one by itself
Base Rates
Relative proportions in a population
Base Rate Fallacy
Base rate information is ignored; farmer and librarian
Availability Heuristic
Shortcut to decision making; deciding based on the information that is readily available and easiest to recall
Illusory Correlation
Seeing a correlation in an event where there isnt any
Illusory Truth Effect
People believe things that are repeated; echo chambers
Just asking questions effect
Tactic to entertain debunked ideas by using the fear of being duped, stop questioning when you should keep questioning
Adjustment
Adjusting estimates, e.g. price of shoes, that are anchored in previously anchored pieces of information, e.g. thinking about the last two numbers of SSN (higher SSN means estimating higher, vice versa)
The Framing Effect
The way you word something (frame) influences the decisions made
Hindsight Bias
People are, in effect, biased by the knowledge of what has actually happened when evaluating its likelihood.
Small Sample Fallacy
Not thinking that a small sample would lead to an either/or outcome; birth rate more girls than boys experiment
Groupthink
Conforming your decision to match that of the consensus of the group, more likely than to come up with the right answer
Planning Fallacy
Incorrectly estimating how long a task will take, e.g. studying or finishing an assignment
Belief Bias
Basing responses in personal beliefs within 1) valid syllogisms with impossible outcomes 2)Invalid syllogisms with believable outcomes
Myside Bias
Type of confirmation bias, but more specific ; relating to opinions or attitudes vs information as a whole
Inductive reasoning
Coming to to a conclusion that is probablytrue, but not necessarily true
Law of large numbers
Bigger sample size means more representative of population
Dual-systems approach
Type 1(2+2=?) vs Type 2 thinking (23 x 167=?)
Misinformation
Misleading information, a lie, an error
Disinformation
Mix of true and false information, subset of misinformation, Intentional for political or economic goal. Bias people. Spread by unwitting agents
Conspiracy Theory
Mix of true and false information, goal is unclear, spread by true believers, unwitting agents, and unsure why
Muddy the waters
Include information into the conversation, meant to confuse
Intentional Campaign
Reason/goal for type of misinformation
Inadvertent Spread
Unconscious Spread of false information
Unwitting Agents
Someone who is unaware of the wrong information they are spreading
Illusory Truth effect
Echo Chamber
Truthiness effect
Picture makes something more believable
Plausibility
“Chance that something is true”; Unwritten rules of misinformation studies, false childhood studies
Rebound effect
Corrections can remind people of false information; people then access that knowledge to argue against correction
Pragmatic Interferences
You can imply something, and people will remember the implication, conjuring own memory is more concrete than just reading it
Identity and Sharing
Adopting information is crucial for group membership
Truth Sandwhich
Truth with warning
False info
Truth reminder
Lateral Searches
Searching for the same topic from other authors, comparing views and information available from said topic
Deplatforming
Removing attention and taking the platform in which someone spreads information
Role of algorithms
Algorithms love engagement, which generate income, incentivizing more controversial information to be spread; change to emphasize accurate information
SIFT method
Slow down
Investigate source and claim
Find trusted coverage
Trace to the original
Analogue Representation
Propositional Representation
Mental Rotation
Mental Scanning
Ambiguous Figures
Demand Characteristics
Reality Monitoring
Visual Buffer
Point of view in memory
Observer Point of View
Field point of view
