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Genome and You > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is ethics?

A

the study of morality using tools and methods of Philosophy (critical reasoning, logic, reflection)

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2
Q

What are descriptive statements?

A

describe (say how the world in fact is/was/will be) ex. 5/10 dentists use Crest, there are 42 people in this room, it is going to snow tomorrow.

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3
Q

What are normative statements?

A

Prescribe (what should be done) and evaluate (say what’s good/bad). Normative moral terms are normative terms with moral action guiding force. Ex. you shouldn’t tell a lie, people ought to be vaccinated.

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4
Q

Benefits of examining issues through the lens of ethics

A

More clarity and better understanding about what is right and wrong, therefore, more confidence about our choices and about the reasoning process we use to defend our behavior, Understanding about other possible and legitimate ways to arrive at ethical answers; tolerance about different approaches.

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5
Q

What is common morality?

A

Contains general norms that are abstract, universal, and content-thin

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6
Q

Traits of Moral Principles

A
  1. Prescriptivity
  2. Universalizability
  3. Overridingness
  4. Publicity
  5. Practicability
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7
Q

What is an argument?

A

a set of statements intended to persuade an audience that a particular statement is true based on one or more other statements

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8
Q

What is a premise?

A

A statement in an argument which, by itself or with other statements, is supposed to provide compelling reasons for accepting the argument’s conclusion

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9
Q

What’s a conclusion?

A

The statement in an argument that the argument’s author wishes to establish as true. It is often the most controversial statement in the argument.

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10
Q

What is deductive argument?

A

the conclusion is guaranteed by the truth of the premises

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11
Q

What is inductive argument?

A

Claims only a high degree of probability for the conclusion

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12
Q

What is a sound argument?

A

A valid argument in which all premises are true. In order to be sound all premises must be true and be valid.

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13
Q

What is a strong argument?

A

If the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true. Ex.
1. Socrates was Greek
2. Most Greeks eat fish
3. Socrates ate fish

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14
Q

What is “begging the question”?

A

When a premise in an argument assumes the conclusion to be correct. Ex. I said “Iam always right” Because I said it, it must be right. Conclusion: I am always right

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15
Q

What is ad hominem fallacy?

A

a statement, premise, is rejected because of an irrelevant fact about the author

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16
Q

What is slippery slope fallacy?

A

Object to something because of the assumption that it will necessarily lead to other undesirable consequences

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17
Q

What is ethical theory?

A

a systematic exposition of a particular view about what is the nature and basis of good or right. The theory provides reasons or norms for judging acts to be right or wrong and attempts to give a justification for these norms.

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18
Q

Utilitarian Theory Bentham

A

When making moral decisions people should choose whatever course of action will produce the greatest balance of pleasure over pain.

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19
Q

Utilitarian Theory Mill

A

Agreed with Bentham but argued there are qualitative differences among pleasures and pains. Ex. The pleasures of “intellect” are higher than the pleasures of the senses.

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20
Q

Criteria for judging/calculating pleasure and pain

A
  1. Pleasure minus pain
  2. Intensity
  3. Duration
  4. Fruitfulness (likeliness of producing additional pleasure)
    5.Certainty
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21
Q

Hedonism

A

Pleasure and happiness are the only two things that have intrinsic goodness

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22
Q

Consequences

A

consequences which produce pleasure or happiness are considered “good”

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23
Q

Instrumental value

A

things that are useful for producing pleasure

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24
Q

Intrinsic value

A

pleasure and happiness

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25
Q

Strengths of Consequentialism

A

Practical, Results oriented View
Relatively clear how to make ethical judgements

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26
Q

Weaknesses of Consequentialism

A
  1. How can we know all the consequences of an action?
  2. How can we compare utility from person to person?
  3. Do we include all generations? All species?
  4. Will utilitarianism lead us to ‘repugnant conclusions’?
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27
Q

Virtue Ethics

A

Development of certain character traits. Ex. Courage, honesty, compassion

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28
Q

Gilligan

A

Criticizes pure rational and objective approach to morality. Character traits should be considered. Moral decisions involve an analysis of the particular situation, a sensitive understanding.

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29
Q

Heinz’s Dilemma

A

Mr. Heinz’s wife has an aggressive cancer. There’s only one medicine that could save her life. The drug costs $2,000 he borrows the money from his friend and relatives. He only gets half, $1,000. He asks the lab to sell it cheaper or allow him to pay the remainder of the money later. They refuse. He’ll return later and steal the drug that can save his wife”. Should he steal the drug and face the consequences? Or should he go scotch free? Should he obey the law and not steal the drug, only to let his wife die

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30
Q

Kohlberg

A

Kohlberg’s sample was composed only of males
Dilemmas were all hypothetical and abstract

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31
Q

Rationalism

A

pure reason can tell us how the world is, independent of experience

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32
Q

Empericism

A

Our minds are a blank slate all knowledge comes from experience.

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33
Q

Out of duty

A

base our actions on what the morally right thing to do is. we are exhibiting good will.

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34
Q

Accordance with duty

A

the act itself must be morally right

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35
Q

Problems with Kantian Theory

A

How do I know whether I am treating a person as an end and not solely as a means?
equal treatment may not always mean the same kind of treatment

36
Q

What was the Archon Prize and why was it cancelled?

A

Sequence 100human genomeswithin 30 days to an accuracy of 1 error per 1,000,000 bases, with 98% completeness, identification of insertions, deletions and rearrangements, at an audited total cost of (initially $10,000) $1,000 per genome.
Prize is cancelled – outpaced by innovation

37
Q

Moore’s law

A

This phenomenon suggests that computational progress will become significantly faster, smaller, and more efficient over time. An observation of a long-term trend in how technology is changing. Human genome was extremely expensive and time consuming but now it’s relatively inexpensive and doesn’t take long.

38
Q

Genes and determinism

A

People used to think their fate was in the universe but now it’s more commonly to think their fate is in their genetics.

39
Q

What is a gene?

A

a stretch of DNA that contains the instructions for the cell to manufacture a protein.

40
Q

Composition of DNA

A

adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T)

41
Q

What is a chromosome?

A

A long, unbroken string of the DNA double helix – each human chromosome is a double string of around 100 million DNA bases

42
Q

What is a karyotype?

A

the full set of chromosomes (23 pairs) contained in each cell

43
Q

Central Dogma

A

DNA –> RNA –> Protein. Transcription and translation

44
Q

Genetic variation

A

A variation is a change in the genetic material, i.e. DNA sequence.

45
Q

DNA Mismatch Repair MMR

A

Spell-Check for DNA replication – to remove mutations.

46
Q

Defect mismatch repair system

A

Lynch Syndrome (Hereditary Non-Polyposis Colorectal Cancer)

47
Q

Environmental influences on genome; Natural Selection

A

Survival of the fittest: those who are best able to survive and pass on their genes are considered the “fittest”
Environments change
Peppered Moth

48
Q

What is genetic determinism?

A

belief that human behavior is directly controlled by an individual’s genes or some component of their physiology

49
Q

Why does narrative research matter with respect to genetic information/testing?

A

Depth and complexity of lived experience
De-stigmatize genetic difference
Genetics is a new frontier: need new decisions and determinations

50
Q

Francis Collins and RBI rule

A

“Desire to Know=Risk x Burden x Intervention.”

51
Q

Plato’s republic: role of citizens

A

Three classes: rulers (gold), auxiliaries (silver), and craftsmen (brass or iron) GENETIC DETERMINISM
“they are to be told that their youth was a dream, and the education and training which they received from us, an appearance only”

52
Q

Mendel and heredity

A

“units of inheritance” (1865) Pea plants

53
Q

T.H. Morgan

A

genes reside on chromosomes

54
Q

Genetic/biological determinism

A

Shared behavioral norms, and the social and economic differences between human groups – primarily races, classes, and sexes – arise from inherited, inborn distinctions and that society is an accurate reflection of biology

55
Q

Conditions wholly caused by gene/gene variation

A

An extra or missing chromosome or part of a chromosome
e.g., Down syndrome, Turner syndrome, cri-du-chat syndrome
A mutation in a single gene
e.g., cystic fibrosis, Marfan syndrome, phenylketonuria

56
Q

Problems with studying IQ and heredity

A

creating an elitist society, genetic determinism, what defines IQ or intelligence

57
Q

Galton

A

eminent men came from eminent families therefore they have desirable traits and should procreate

58
Q

Binet

A

Craniometry and Intelligence – “incontestable” correlation between head size and intelligence. Bigger head more intelligent.
He later doubted this correlation – “I feared that in making measurements on heads with the intention of finding a difference in volume between an intelligent and a less intelligent head, I would be led to increase, unconsciously and in good faith, the cephalic volume of intelligent heads and to decrease that of the unintelligent heads” BIAS in research.
Turned to “psychological” methods

59
Q

Goddard

A

Created a linear scale of mental deficiency – idiots to imbeciles to morons. “If both parents are feeble-minded all the children will be feeble-minded. It is obvious that such matings should not be allowed.”

60
Q

Sir Cyril Burt

A

Burt found 53 pairs however only 20 pairs were discovered for the purpose of research– throughout his research the average correlation between pairs for IQ never changed more than .001 - impossible
Showed IQ as mainly heritable
Research was fabricated

61
Q

Rushton

A

Published work in 1988 that purported to show differences in intelligences, maturation rate, sexual restraint, social organization and temperament that corresponded to race. ““Whites have, on average, more neurons and cranial size than blacks… “

62
Q

The Bell Curve

A

Ignored environmental evidence
Classic “correlation does not equal causation”
“stereotype threat” – performance of black participants affected when they know that their race is being studied.
People with lower socioeconomic status generally have lower IQ scores.

63
Q

GWAS Study of Intelligence and DNA

A

– genome-wide association studies – the search for genotypic differences that are correlated with differences in observable traits. 12 million SNPs were analyzed and 336 correlated significantly with intelligence and involved 22 different genes

64
Q

Why is the study of heritability of intelligence so contentious?

A

Intelligence is closely intertwined with our sense of who we are and can become
Designer babies
Use of research to advance classist and racist agendas

65
Q

Gene Plaza and genetic prediction of IQ

A

“Users can upload their 23andMe data and pay $4 extra to access an “Intelligence App,” which rates their DNA using data from the big 2017 study on IQ genes. It shows users where their genes place them on a bell curve from lower to higher IQ”

66
Q

How might genetic heritability of characteristics be measured?

A

Identical twins; Identical twins reared apart closely correlate. Any similarities are thought to be from genes alone while differences are thought to be from environment.

67
Q

What is eugenics?

A

The eugenics movement was based on that certain traits were transmitted genetically. If selective breeding is employed you can increase/decrease the occurrence of particular traits.

68
Q

3 types of eugenics

A

Natural, Conventional, Modern

69
Q

Plato Eugenics

A

Plato and selective breeding to improve society

70
Q

Galton Eugenics

A

Francis Galton coined the term in 1883; proposed using this method to improve the British population

71
Q

Henry Clay Sharp

A

carried out vasectomies on prisoners who masturbated; claiming they were “degenerates”. an Indiana law (enacted in 1907) mandating compulsory sterilization for “degenerates”

72
Q

Relationship to Nazi era

A

several hundred thousand people sterilized

73
Q

Sweden

A

Sterilized ~60,000 between 1930 and 1970 to reduce the number of children born with genetic diseases

74
Q

Who was targeted in the U.S.?

A

immigrants, people with intellectual capabilities, those in prisons, alcoholism, prostitutes, those in poverty, and those who committed crimes.

75
Q

What might the political motivations of eugenics have been?

A

Drive for social improvement; well being of society trumped individual rights.

76
Q

Was there enough science to back up this movement?

A

No, there were “fitter family” competitions in the US which were based off of IQ and a test for syphilis. Contestants with a B+ or higher were told they had “goodly heritage”

77
Q

Why did the eugenics movement fail?

A
  1. many mental disabilities have nothing to do with genes
  2. most human behaviors are shaped by heredity AND environment
  3. Connection with Hitler’s regime strengthened moral objections to eugenics and increased focus on individual human rights.
78
Q

What was ironic about Buck v. Bell?

A

Carrie doesn’t fall into the groups that the eugenics movement was trying to target. She didn’t have a mental disability, and she wasn’t promiscuous. Also, her daughter who was a product of rape also didn’t have a mental disability.

79
Q

What lesson does Buck v Bell teach us?

A

The eugenics movement wasn’t truly about “making society better” and they looked for people who didn’t fit into societal norms to attack.

80
Q

Mexican immigration and forced sterilization

A

LA County Medical Center sterilized Mexican immigrant women without consent and many of them couldn’t speak English. Many thought sterilization meant sterilizing the surgical equipment.

81
Q

Eugenics in Canada

A

25 to 50% of Indigenous women of reproductive age in the U.S. were sterilized in the 1970s.

82
Q

California prison sterilization

A

150 women were sterilized in California prisons between 2006-2010, many done without informed consent.

83
Q

What’s Immoral About Eugenics? Population Eugenics

A

The population approach almost always involves a third-party making decisions about personal reproductive choice. Force and coercion almost always used.

84
Q

What’s Immoral About Eugenics? Individual/Couple Eugenics

A

Individual/couples voluntarily choose a heritable trait in their sperm, egg, embryo, or fetus.

85
Q

Arguments against Eugenics

A

Coercion
Arbitrary standards of perfection
Social inequalities

86
Q

Blaming our Genes: Advanced Sleep Phase Syndrome

A

Stanford Medicine, “The prevalence of advanced sleep phase syndrome in the general population is unknown although it is most prevalent among older adults. Advanced sleep phase syndrome has the same prevalence among men and women. Researchers have also found a strong genetic link: 40%-50% of people suffering from advanced sleep phase syndrome are related to someone who has the syndrome.”

87
Q

Blaming our Genes: Advanced Sleep Phase Syndrome

A

Twins – Obsessive Compulsive Disorder – dad had been fastidiously neat – food? DNA? Toxin? Upbringing?

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