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Comparative Anatomy > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What are three challenges that living creatures face?

A
  • Generating energy
  • Eliminating waste
  • Sensing and interacting with the environment
  • Sensing and interacting with other living things
  • Reproducing
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2
Q

Define anatomy

A

The study of how various parts of an organism are connected and relate to other body parts

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3
Q

Define morphology

A

the study of anatomy and its significance

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4
Q

define functional morphology

A

the study of the relationship between the anatomical design of a stricture and the functions it performs

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5
Q

define evolutionary morphology

A

the study of the relationship between the change in anatomical design through time and the processes responsible for this change

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6
Q

define function

A

how a part performs within an organism

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7
Q

how’s a structure’s biological role defined

A

how the form and function of a biological part perform in an enviornmental context to contribute to the organism’s survival

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8
Q

define dorsal

A

directed toward or situated on the back surface, or the surface away from the ground

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9
Q

define ventral

A

directed toward or situated on the belly surface

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10
Q

define medial

A

directed toward the center of the body

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11
Q

define lateral

A

directed toward the extremities of the body

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12
Q

Be able to correctly capitalize a scientific name in binomial nomenclature

A

The genus is capitalized, the species is not. When typed, both names are italicized.
Lemur catta, Pan troglodytes, and Homo sapiens are examples

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13
Q

What two types of factors affect how anatomical structures evolve (why are there no
flying elephants)?

A
  1. External factors – the environment in which the animal resides exerts selection
    pressure
  2. Internal factors – the animal must remain a functional whole, natural selection
    only adapts what is already present
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14
Q

Explain the difference between an evolutionary constraint and an evolutionary trade off
and how they relate to the evolution of anatomical structures

A

Evolutionary constraints and trade-offs relate to the internal factors that affect how
anatomical structures evolve. Evolutionary constraints occur when there is restriction
or limit on evolution. A species cannot evolve a new structure when most of the
individuals with that structure do not survive to reproductive age. Evolutionary trade-
offs occur when a new structure improves success in one area but compromises it in
another. A new structure may increase the reproductive success of individuals in a
species while limiting their lifespans (ability to survive)

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15
Q

Define “convergent evolution” and explain why it creates challenges in using anatomy to
identify relationships between different species.

A

Convergent evolution occurs when two species have a similar, but evolutionarily
independent response to a common problem. Convergent evolution results in analogous traits which have shared functions (and similar structures) in species which are not closely related. Think about the jerboas and kangaroo rats from class

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16
Q

define taxa

A

groups of organisms

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17
Q

define taxonomy

A

the scientific discipline of naming organisms

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18
Q

Identify the four traits shared by all organisms that are considered Bilateria

A
  • Body segmentation
  • An anterior-posterior body axis
  • Gastrulation
  • Bilateral symmetry
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19
Q

The embryologic characteristics of protostomes are:

A
  • Spiral cleavage
  • Determinate cleavage
  • The blastopore becomes the mouth
  • Ectodermal skeleton
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20
Q

The embryologic characteristics of deuterostomes are:

A
  • Radial cleavage
  • Indeterminate cleavage
  • The blastopore becomes the anus
  • Mesodermal skeleton
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21
Q

are vertebrates protostomes or deuterostomes

A

deuterostomes

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22
Q

define embryology

A

the branch of biology concerned with embryos and their development to hatching or birth

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23
Q

define ontogeny

A

the changes in an organism from zygote to death

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24
Q

define zygotę

A

fertilized egg

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25
Q

define morula

A

ball of cells formed by cleavage of a zygote

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26
Q

define blastula

A

the hollow, fluid-filled ball of cells that forms after the morula

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27
Q

define gastrula

A

the embryo after the cell layers that create the early gut have formed

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28
Q

Define “archenteron” and explain how it relates to distinguishing protostomes from deuterostomes

A

The archenteron is the early gut.
The archenteron is formed in part from the blastopore and if the blastopore forms
into the entrance (mouth) of the archenteron, the organism is a protostome. If the blastopore forms into the exit (anus) of the archenteron, the organism is a deuterostome

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29
Q

define neurla

A

The embryo after the neural tube has formed (the gut has usually formed before or at the same time)

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30
Q

define holoblastic clevage

A

Embryonic cleavage where the furrows pass entirely through the zygote

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31
Q

define meroblastic cleavage

A

embryonic cleavage where only part of the cytoplasm is cleaved

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32
Q

Which type of cleavage occurs in species where eggs have a large amount of yolk?

A

Discoidal cleavage, which is a type of meroblastic cleavage

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33
Q

what are the embryonic layers that develop during gastrulation

A

endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm

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34
Q

list the step of neurulation

A
  1. The ectoderm on the dorsal surface thickens to form a strip of tissue called the neural plate
  2. The neural plate margins raise into neural folds
  3. The neural folds meet and merge at midline to form the neural tube
  4. The neural tube will develop into the central nervous system
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35
Q

What are neural crest cells and what types of structures do they develop into?

A
  • Craniofacial structures
  • Melanocytes
  • Odontoblasts - teeth
  • Tracheal cartilage
  • Laryngeal cartilage
  • Ganglia
36
Q

What are neurogenic placodes and what types of structures do they develop into?

A

Sensory structures including:
* The lateral line
* The vestibular apparatus
* The lens of the eye
* Olfactory sensory epithelium

37
Q

Which organs are formed from ectoderm?

A
  • Epidermis
  • The anterior portion of the mouth
  • The central nervous system
38
Q

Which organs are formed from mesoderm?

A
  • Dermis
  • Vertebral column
  • Axial and limb muscles
  • Heart and blood vessels
  • Kidneys and urogenital structures
39
Q

Which organs are formed from endoderm?

A
  • Alimentary canal
  • Trachea
  • Liver and gallbladder
  • Pancreas
  • Urinary bladder
  • Cloaca
40
Q

Define “parturition”

A

giving birth to live offspring

41
Q

define oviposition

A

laying eggs

42
Q

List the unique characteristics of chordates

A

*Notochord
*Dorsal, hollow nerve cord
*Endostyle or a thyroid gland
*Postanal tail

43
Q

Explain why pharyngeal slits are no longer considered to be a unique chordate
characteristic

A

Genes and developmental pathways associated with pharyngeal slits are found in non-chordate organisms

44
Q

What is the functional significance of the notochord?

A

The notochord allows for lateral movement of the body while preventing it from
collapsing

45
Q

How does the position of the nerve cord in chordates differ from that in non-chordates?

A

In chordates the nerve cord is positioned dorsally in the body (dorsal to the digestive
tract). In non-chordates the nerve chord is positioned ventrally.

46
Q

How are an endostyle and a thyroid gland similar?

A

Both structures develop from the floor of the pharynx
Both structures play a role in iodine metabolism

47
Q

What is difference between an endostyle and a thyroid gland?

A

An endostyle functions in filter feeding while a thyroid gland is an endocrine gland
that produces hormones

48
Q

Which vertebrate possess both an endostyle and a thyroid gland during its lifecycle?

A

The lamprey possesses both an endostyle and a thyroid gland

49
Q

What types of structures do pharyngeal slits develop/evolve into?

A
  • Feeding apparatus
  • Gills
  • Portions of the ear
50
Q

What are important traits of urochordates?

A
  • Share characteristics of the olfactory system with vertebrates
  • Have cells that may be homologous with neural crest cells
  • The body is adults is simplified and bag-like
  • There is a flexible outer layer called the tunic
  • Urochordates are filter feeders using a structure called a branchial basket
  • Reverse blood flow
51
Q

What are important traits of cephalochordates?

A
  • Genome shows features of the last common ancestor of all chordates
  • Cephalochordates are dorsoventrally inverted
  • A structure called a wheel organ is used in filter feeding
  • Cephalochordates possess a structure call Hatscheck’s pit that secretes mucus
    to aid in filter feeding
  • Use myomeres for swimming
52
Q

What are the two skeletal anatomical innovations that separate vertebrates from other chordates?

A

The vertebral column and the cranium

53
Q

How does the vertebral column relate to the notochord?

A

The vertebral column takes over the support and locomotion roles of the notochord

54
Q

What are the three structural components of the cranium?

A
  1. The braincase
  2. The jaws
  3. The hyoid apparatus
55
Q

What is the importance of the hyoid apparatus?

A

The hyoid apparatus plays a role in swallowing and speech

56
Q

List the four tissue types of vertebrates, their roles in the body, and example of each

A
  • Epithelial tissues – form boundaries and protect the body – skin or mucosa
  • Muscular tissues – exert forces and create movement – cardiac muscle, the iris
    of the eye
  • Neural tissues – transmit and support the transmission of information – ganglia, myelin
  • Connective tissues – provide support, protection, and strength to the body as
    well as connect body structures – ligaments, blood
57
Q

List the anatomic features besides the cranium and vertebrae that are unique to vertebrates

A
  • A developed head with a three-part brain and complex sense organs
  • Complex endocrine organs
  • A muscularized gut
  • A heart with multiple chambers
  • Mineralized tissues
  • Gills derived from endoderm
58
Q

List the organ systems of vertebrates

A
  • Integumentary
  • Skeletal
  • Muscular
  • Nervous
  • Respiratory
  • Circulatory
  • Digestive
  • Excretory
  • Reproductive
  • Endocrine
59
Q

layers of vertebrate skin

A

epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis

60
Q

non vascular layer of skin

A

the epidermis

61
Q

glandular layer of skin

A

dermis

62
Q

layer of skin that stores fat

A

hypodermis

63
Q

Differentiate between the three types of muscle tissue

A
  • Skeletal muscle has striations and is under voluntary control
  • Cardiac muscle has striations and intercalated discs and is involuntary
  • Smooth muscle does not have striations and is involuntary
64
Q

List the two divisions of the nervous system and what structures make up each division

A
  • Central nervous system made up of the brain and spinal cord
  • Peripheral nervous system made up of all of the nerves outside of the brain
    and spinal cord
65
Q

regions of the vertebrate brain

A

forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain

66
Q

forebrain

A

smell, complex behaviors, and fine motor control

67
Q

midbrain

A

visual, auditory, and lateral line input

68
Q

hindbrain

A

reflexes, equilibrium, and motor activity

69
Q

Differentiate between external respiration and internal respiration and which organs/tissues are involved in each

A
  • External respiration is gas exchange between the environment and the blood.
    Oxygen moves from the environment (water or air) into the bloodstream. Gills,
    lungs, and sometimes skin are organs of external respiration.
  • Internal respiration is gas exchange between the blood and the tissues. Oxygen moves out of the blood and into the body tissues. Blood and the capillaries are
    the major tissues of internal respiration.
70
Q

Define circulation, list the organs of the circulatory system, and differentiate between single and double circulation

A
  • The heart and blood vessels are the organs of the circulatory system
  • Circulation is the movement of blood in a regular or circuitous, returning to the
    point of origin (the heart).
    o In single circulation, blood passes through the heart once during each
    complete cycle.
    o In double (or dual) circulation, blood passes through the heart twice
    during each complete cycle.
71
Q

List the sections of the alimentary canal in order and differentiate between a rectum and a vent

A

Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
Large intestine
Cecum
Colon
Rectum (ends in an anus and only holds digestive products) or cloaca (ends in a vent and holds digestive, urinary, and sometimes reproductive products

72
Q

Define the cortex of the kidney and which parts of the nephron are in the cortex

A

The cortex is the outer region of the kidney. The glomeruli, proximal tubules and distal tubules are in the cortex

73
Q

Define the medulla of the kidney and which parts of the nephron are in the medulla

A

The medulla in the inner region of the kidney. The Loop of Henle ad the collecting ducts are in the medulla

74
Q

Define the functions of the kidney based on the mnemonic “A WET BED”

A

Acid-base balance
Water balance
Electrolyte balance
Toxin and waste removal
Blood pressure regulation
Erythropoietin production
D (vitamin D) production

75
Q

List the female reproductive organs

A
  • Ovary
  • Oviduct
  • Uterus
76
Q

List the male reproductive organs

A
  • Testis
  • Testicular duct
  • Copulatory organ
77
Q

Define “axial skeleton”

A

The axial skeleton is the portion of the skeleton made up of the cranium and the vertebral column as well as the ribs and the sternum

78
Q

What are the three developmental parts of the cranium?

A

chondrocranium, dermatocranium, and splanchnocranium

79
Q

chondrocranium

A

supports the brain

80
Q

dermatocranium

A

protects the brain

81
Q

splanchnocranium

A

supports the jaws, gill arches, and hyoid

82
Q

list the regions of the vertebral column

A
  • Cervical
  • Thoracic
  • Lumbar
  • Sacral
  • Caudal
83
Q

Starting with trunk and caudal vertebrae of fish, explain the order in which the specialized regions of the vertebral column evolved.

A
  • Fish have two main groups of vertebrae – the trunk vertebrae which have ribs
    and the caudal vertebrae which do not.
  • Early tetrapods evolved separate cervical vertebrae and retained trunk and
    caudal vertebrae.
  • The trunk vertebrae began to differentiate further: cervical, thoracolumbar,
    and caudal vertebrae.
  • The pelvic girdle became connected to the vertebral column through
    specialized vertebrae called the sacral vertebrae: Cervical, thoracolumbar,
    sacral, and caudal vertebrae.
  • The thoracic vertebrae retained ribs while the lumber vertebrae lost them:
    Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and caudal vertebrae.
84
Q

List the functions of the ribs

A
  • Protect the internal organs
  • Attachment points for muscles of ventilation
  • Have marrow and produce red blood cells
85
Q

Define “mineralization” and identify which type of mineralization occurs in the
vertebrate skeleton

A

Mineralization occurs when inorganic minerals are deposited in the matrix of
connective tissues which creates a hard structure.
Ossification, deposition of calcium phosphate, occurs in vertebrate skeletons

86
Q

List the ways that cartilage and bone are different

A
  • The main structural cells of cartilage are chondrocytes, and the main structural
    cells of bone are osteocytes
  • The matrix of cartilage contains glycosaminoglycans and the matrix of bone
    contains calcium phosphate
  • Cartilage is avascular and bone is vascular
  • Cartilage is less structured, and bone is highly structured
  • Cartilage is surrounded by perichondrium and bone is surrounded by
    periosteum
87
Q

Would evidence of complex sense organs in a fossil nonvertebrate chordate suggest a close relationship with vertebrates? What vertebrate features would have to be present?

A

The complex sense organs of vertebrates develop from neural crest and
neurogenic placodes, both of which are unique vertebrate features. Presence of
complex sense organs in an adult nonvertebrate chordate fossil would suggest the
presence of neural crest and neurogenic placodes in the embryos of this fossil taxon.
This would imply a closer relationship to vertebrates than to cephalochordates or
urochordates, which lack neural crest and neurogenic placodes

Comparative Anatomy (1 decks)

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