exam 1 Flashcards
Range
The difference between the lowest and highest
- provide rough estimate of variation
- if have couple of extreme scores, will create a false large range / variation
- better method: standard deviation
Skewed Distributions
Happens due to few extreme data points
- this is why if the mean is reported, the report can be inaccurate
ex) Income data – billionaires skew the data
Scatterplots
A graphed cluster of dots – good for showing correlation between two variables
- slope represents the relationship between two variables
- amount of scatter shows strength of correlation
- perfect positive correlation, no relationship, perfect negative correlation
Bar charts
- compare categories
- show variation in subgroups
Histograms
- shows distribution of numeric values of variables
- shows frequency of variables
Mean
Arithmetic average; total sum / number of scores
Median
Midpoint; 50th percentile
Mode
Most frequently occurring score or scores
Standard Deviation
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
- useful standard for measuring how much scores deviate from one another
- can know if data packed together or dispersed
Normal curve
Bell shaped distribution
- most cases fall near mean, fewer in either extreme
- 68 percent fall within one standard deviation
- 95 percent fall in two standard deviations
- 97.5 = 3 standard deviation
Regression to the mean
Tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward the average
- since unusual scores can be a combination of different factors, if tested again, the score will likely be more regular
- can lead to illusionary correlation ( ex. after a poor performance, coach will think the scolding actually worked when the team preforms okay again in the next game)
Statistical significance
Statistical statement of how likely it is that result occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied (doesn’t mean it’s a big effect though)
- difference is statistically significant: If sample’s difference reflects a true population difference
- multiple observations have low variability = statistically significant
- p-value: number describing how likely it is that your data would have occurred by random chance
Sample size
Large sample size minimize chance of extreme outcomes
Representativeness of sample
Random and representative samples; not just from exceptional and memorable cases
- research rarely randomly samples whole population ; hard to do
Empirical approach
Evidence-based method that draws on observation and experimentation
- Not introspection
- requires scientific attitude
- James Randi
- Hume
Descartes
Dualism
Believes physical body was container for non physical (the mind)
Hard problem of consciousness
Scientific Attitude
curiosity: can prediction be confirmed
skepticism: sift reality from fantasy
humility : be willing to be surprised by new ideas
Critical thinking
examine assumptions, appraise source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, assesses conclusions
Nagel
What is it like to be a bat?
Hobbes
Materialism
- everything is a mechanical system
- the mind is what the brain does
Structuralism
Used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind
Wundt
- structuralist
- created first psychology experiment / lab (reaction time)
- wanted to measure “atoms of the mind”
- used analytic introspection to try to find building blocks of the mind
- experience is combination of sensations
James
- functionalist
- influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution
- adaptive processes
- studied emotions, memories, willpower, habits, stream of consciousness
Functionalism
Exploration of how mental and behavioral processes function – how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish
Frued
Freudian Psychology
- ways our unconscious mind and childhood experiences affect behavior and personality
- Unconscious and conscious
- Id: basic desires (had since baby)
- Superego: values (after develop morals)
- Ego: mediator between superego and id –> decision making
Pavlov & Watson
Behaviorism
Pavlov
- classical conditioning (stimulus-response)
- something that naturally happens paired with something that does not naturally happen
- learned experience
- dogs salivate when the research assistant comes in
John Watson
- predict behavior through study of observable behavior
- present boy with comforting item but then when given item a loud bar hitting sound –> boy started to cry when shown item
Skinner
Behavioralist
- conditioning chamber to explaining learning and operant conditioning (use rewards or punishments to modify behavior)
Chomsky
Resistance to behaviorism
Human language
- children form sentences they never heard before –> so can’t be stimulus-response
Late 1800s
Structuralism, functionalism, empirical approach
Early 1900s
Psychoanalysis and behaviorism
Resistance to behaviorism
Late 1900s
Cognitive revolution
- cognitive psychology
- cognitive neuroscience
Study of mental processes
Cognitive psychology:
- how we perceive, process, and remember information
- how thinking and emotion interact in anxiety, depression, and other disorders
Humanistic psychology
Focus on growth potential
- our need for love, acceptance, environments that nurture personal growth
Evolutionary psychology
Study of evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
- nature vs nurture
Positive psychology
Study of human flourishing, with goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive
Biopsychosocial approach
Integrated approach that incorporates 3 levels of analysis: biological, psychological, social-cultural
Types of psychology careers
Basic research: build psychology’s knowledge base
Applied research: tackle practical problems
Counseling psychologist: help cope with challenges
Clinical psychologist: assessing and treating people with disorders
Psychiatrist: medical doctors who can prescribe drugs
Community psychologists: create healthy environments
Levels of analysis
Different ways to analyze a given phenomenon
Biological : genetic traits, genes responding to environment
Psychological : learned fears, emotional responses
Social-cultural : cultural, societal, family expectations
Study skills: SQ3R
Survey: read main points
Questions: create study questions
Read: read section and answer Qs
Recite: recite main ideas
Review: main points and section questions
Empiricism
Knowledge is acquired through experience
Nativism
Knowledge is innate rather than aquired
Theory
Explains behaviors or events by offering ideas that organize observations
- imply predictions that anyone can use to check the theory or to derive practical applications
- stimulate further research that leads to a revised theroy that better organizes and predicts observations
Hypothesis
A testable prediction
- supports a theory or leads to revision
- a hypothesis should be: logical, testable, falsifiable and positive
Operational Definitions
Carefully worded statement of exact procedures used in a research study
- what is it?
- how is it assessed?
- for whom is it applicable
Feynman’s thoughts on scientific method
You guess then test it; you can’t “prove” anything
Correlation
Measure of extent two factors vary together; how well one factor predicts the other
Correlation coefficient: statistical index of relationship between two thing (-1.00 to +1.00)
Positive correlation (0 to +1.00): direct relationship
Negative correlation (-1.00 to 0): inverse relationship
*Correlation points towards predictions and reveal relationships; but imperfect ones
*Correlation does not prove causation
Experiment
Research method in which one or more factors are manipulated and then the effects on some behavior or mental process is observed
- experimental group: ppl receive the treatment
- control group: does not receive treatment
- random sampling: create representative survey sample
- random assignment: equalizes experimental & control group
Quasi-experiment
Involves variables you can’t manipulate, or that cannot be randomly assigned
- no random assignment
Naturalistic observation
Recording natural behavior of many individuals
- does not control all factors
- often involves new technology (“big data”)
- describes and illuminates but does not explain behavior
Meta-analysis
Statistical procedure for analyses of multiple study results
- finds universal principles
Survey
Ask people to self-report behavior or opinions of particular group
- wording effect: wording can affect results
Case study
In-depth analyses of individuals or groups
- suggests fruitful ideas for future research
- doesn’t provide generalizations or universal truths
ex. Phineas Gage and the metal bar
Sampling
Random sample: each member in population has equal chance of inclusion
Representative sample
Large sample size
ex. “small rural communities have the highest incidence of Kidney Cancer” –> but small rural communities also have the lowest incidence of kidney cancer
Replication
Experiment should be replicable; replication = confirmation
- repeat original observations with different participants, materials, circumstances
- increases reliability confidence of experiment / finding
Pre-registration
Publicly communicate planned study design, hypotheses, data collection, and analyses
- transparency prevents later changing hypotheses to fit data
- important for exploratory research (gather data and seek patterns that inspire theories) which can be tested with confirmatory research
