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PSYC 1101 > exam 1 > Flashcards

exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Range

A

The difference between the lowest and highest

  • provide rough estimate of variation
  • if have couple of extreme scores, will create a false large range / variation
  • better method: standard deviation
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2
Q

Skewed Distributions

A

Happens due to few extreme data points
- this is why if the mean is reported, the report can be inaccurate

ex) Income data – billionaires skew the data

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3
Q

Scatterplots

A

A graphed cluster of dots – good for showing correlation between two variables

  • slope represents the relationship between two variables
  • amount of scatter shows strength of correlation
  • perfect positive correlation, no relationship, perfect negative correlation
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4
Q

Bar charts

A
  • compare categories
  • show variation in subgroups
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5
Q

Histograms

A
  • shows distribution of numeric values of variables
  • shows frequency of variables
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6
Q

Mean

A

Arithmetic average; total sum / number of scores

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7
Q

Median

A

Midpoint; 50th percentile

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8
Q

Mode

A

Most frequently occurring score or scores

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9
Q

Standard Deviation

A

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

  • useful standard for measuring how much scores deviate from one another
  • can know if data packed together or dispersed
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10
Q

Normal curve

A

Bell shaped distribution

  • most cases fall near mean, fewer in either extreme
  • 68 percent fall within one standard deviation
  • 95 percent fall in two standard deviations
  • 97.5 = 3 standard deviation
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11
Q

Regression to the mean

A

Tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward the average

  • since unusual scores can be a combination of different factors, if tested again, the score will likely be more regular
  • can lead to illusionary correlation ( ex. after a poor performance, coach will think the scolding actually worked when the team preforms okay again in the next game)
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12
Q

Statistical significance

A

Statistical statement of how likely it is that result occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied (doesn’t mean it’s a big effect though)

  • difference is statistically significant: If sample’s difference reflects a true population difference
  • multiple observations have low variability = statistically significant
  • p-value: number describing how likely it is that your data would have occurred by random chance
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13
Q

Sample size

A

Large sample size minimize chance of extreme outcomes

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14
Q

Representativeness of sample

A

Random and representative samples; not just from exceptional and memorable cases

  • research rarely randomly samples whole population ; hard to do
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15
Q

Empirical approach

A

Evidence-based method that draws on observation and experimentation

  • Not introspection
  • requires scientific attitude
  • James Randi
  • Hume
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16
Q

Descartes

A

Dualism
Believes physical body was container for non physical (the mind)

Hard problem of consciousness

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17
Q

Scientific Attitude

A

curiosity: can prediction be confirmed
skepticism: sift reality from fantasy
humility : be willing to be surprised by new ideas

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18
Q

Critical thinking

A

examine assumptions, appraise source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, assesses conclusions

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19
Q

Nagel

A

What is it like to be a bat?

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20
Q

Hobbes

A

Materialism
- everything is a mechanical system
- the mind is what the brain does

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21
Q

Structuralism

A

Used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

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22
Q

Wundt

A
  • structuralist
  • created first psychology experiment / lab (reaction time)
  • wanted to measure “atoms of the mind”
  • used analytic introspection to try to find building blocks of the mind
  • experience is combination of sensations
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23
Q

James

A
  • functionalist
  • influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution
  • adaptive processes
  • studied emotions, memories, willpower, habits, stream of consciousness
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24
Q

Functionalism

A

Exploration of how mental and behavioral processes function – how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

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25
Q

Frued

A

Freudian Psychology

  • ways our unconscious mind and childhood experiences affect behavior and personality
  • Unconscious and conscious
    - Id: basic desires (had since baby)
    - Superego: values (after develop morals)
    - Ego: mediator between superego and id –> decision making
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26
Q

Pavlov & Watson

A

Behaviorism

Pavlov
- classical conditioning (stimulus-response)
- something that naturally happens paired with something that does not naturally happen
- learned experience
- dogs salivate when the research assistant comes in

John Watson
- predict behavior through study of observable behavior
- present boy with comforting item but then when given item a loud bar hitting sound –> boy started to cry when shown item

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27
Q

Skinner

A

Behavioralist

  • conditioning chamber to explaining learning and operant conditioning (use rewards or punishments to modify behavior)
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28
Q

Chomsky

A

Resistance to behaviorism

Human language
- children form sentences they never heard before –> so can’t be stimulus-response

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29
Q

Late 1800s

A

Structuralism, functionalism, empirical approach

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30
Q

Early 1900s

A

Psychoanalysis and behaviorism
Resistance to behaviorism

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31
Q

Late 1900s

A

Cognitive revolution

  • cognitive psychology
  • cognitive neuroscience
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32
Q

Study of mental processes

A

Cognitive psychology:
- how we perceive, process, and remember information
- how thinking and emotion interact in anxiety, depression, and other disorders

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33
Q

Humanistic psychology

A

Focus on growth potential
- our need for love, acceptance, environments that nurture personal growth

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34
Q

Evolutionary psychology

A

Study of evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

  • nature vs nurture
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35
Q

Positive psychology

A

Study of human flourishing, with goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

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36
Q

Biopsychosocial approach

A

Integrated approach that incorporates 3 levels of analysis: biological, psychological, social-cultural

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37
Q

Types of psychology careers

A

Basic research: build psychology’s knowledge base

Applied research: tackle practical problems

Counseling psychologist: help cope with challenges

Clinical psychologist: assessing and treating people with disorders

Psychiatrist: medical doctors who can prescribe drugs

Community psychologists: create healthy environments

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38
Q

Levels of analysis

A

Different ways to analyze a given phenomenon

Biological : genetic traits, genes responding to environment

Psychological : learned fears, emotional responses

Social-cultural : cultural, societal, family expectations

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39
Q

Study skills: SQ3R

A

Survey: read main points
Questions: create study questions
Read: read section and answer Qs
Recite: recite main ideas
Review: main points and section questions

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40
Q

Empiricism

A

Knowledge is acquired through experience

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41
Q

Nativism

A

Knowledge is innate rather than aquired

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42
Q

Theory

A

Explains behaviors or events by offering ideas that organize observations

  • imply predictions that anyone can use to check the theory or to derive practical applications
  • stimulate further research that leads to a revised theroy that better organizes and predicts observations
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43
Q

Hypothesis

A

A testable prediction
- supports a theory or leads to revision
- a hypothesis should be: logical, testable, falsifiable and positive

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44
Q

Operational Definitions

A

Carefully worded statement of exact procedures used in a research study

  • what is it?
  • how is it assessed?
  • for whom is it applicable
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45
Q

Feynman’s thoughts on scientific method

A

You guess then test it; you can’t “prove” anything

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46
Q

Correlation

A

Measure of extent two factors vary together; how well one factor predicts the other

Correlation coefficient: statistical index of relationship between two thing (-1.00 to +1.00)

Positive correlation (0 to +1.00): direct relationship
Negative correlation (-1.00 to 0): inverse relationship

*Correlation points towards predictions and reveal relationships; but imperfect ones
*Correlation does not prove causation

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47
Q

Experiment

A

Research method in which one or more factors are manipulated and then the effects on some behavior or mental process is observed

  • experimental group: ppl receive the treatment
  • control group: does not receive treatment
  • random sampling: create representative survey sample
  • random assignment: equalizes experimental & control group
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48
Q

Quasi-experiment

A

Involves variables you can’t manipulate, or that cannot be randomly assigned

  • no random assignment
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49
Q

Naturalistic observation

A

Recording natural behavior of many individuals

  • does not control all factors
  • often involves new technology (“big data”)
  • describes and illuminates but does not explain behavior
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50
Q

Meta-analysis

A

Statistical procedure for analyses of multiple study results

  • finds universal principles
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51
Q

Survey

A

Ask people to self-report behavior or opinions of particular group

  • wording effect: wording can affect results
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52
Q

Case study

A

In-depth analyses of individuals or groups

  • suggests fruitful ideas for future research
  • doesn’t provide generalizations or universal truths

ex. Phineas Gage and the metal bar

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53
Q

Sampling

A

Random sample: each member in population has equal chance of inclusion
Representative sample
Large sample size

ex. “small rural communities have the highest incidence of Kidney Cancer” –> but small rural communities also have the lowest incidence of kidney cancer

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54
Q

Replication

A

Experiment should be replicable; replication = confirmation

  • repeat original observations with different participants, materials, circumstances
  • increases reliability confidence of experiment / finding
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55
Q

Pre-registration

A

Publicly communicate planned study design, hypotheses, data collection, and analyses

  • transparency prevents later changing hypotheses to fit data
  • important for exploratory research (gather data and seek patterns that inspire theories) which can be tested with confirmatory research
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56
Q

Double blind procedure

A

Procedure in which both research participants and staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo

  • find accurate results without placebo effect
57
Q

Ethical considerations

A

Animal testing: need to provide humane living conditions

Ethics code of APA and BPS
- obtain potential participants’s informed consent to take part
- protect participants from greater-than-usual harm and discomfort
- keep info about individual confidential
- fully debrief people : explain research afterwards

58
Q

What are good research protocols?

A

Replication, preregistration, reporting null findings, double blind procedure, ethical considerations

59
Q

Independent variable

A

The factor that is being manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

60
Q

Dependent variable

A

The outcome that is measured;

the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

61
Q

Confounding variable

A

A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results

  • random assignment helps reduce
62
Q

Demand characteristics

A

Aspects of observational setting that can cause people to behave as they think someone else wants or expects

63
Q

Hindsight Bias

A

Tendency to believe, after learning an outcome

  • “I-knew-it-all-along”
64
Q

Placebo effect

A

Experimental results caused by expectations

  • ex. thinking that you are getting treatment can make it feel like you are getting better
65
Q

Overconfidence

A

People tend to be more confident than correct

66
Q

Perceiving order from random events

A

People tend to find patterns in random data

  • random sequences often don’t look random
67
Q

Bias

A

Start to accept info that fit bias instead based on evidence

Post-truth: people’s emotions and personal beliefs will often override their acceptance of objective facts

causes
- false news
- repetition; more repeated info
- availability of powerful examples
- echo chamber of the like-minded

68
Q

Problems with survey data

A

Things to consider:

  • standardized: needs to be like normal curve (not like yelp which people mostly give 0 stars or 5 stars)
  • reliable: can be able to get same scores again
  • valid: measures what is it meant to measure
69
Q

Predicting everyday behavior

A

Experiments’s purpose is not to re-create exact behaviors in everyday life

  • resulting principles, not specific findings, in experiment help explain everyday behaviors
70
Q

Neuroplasticity / neural reorganization

A

Brain’s ability to change, esp during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

ex. pianists have larger than usual auditory cortex area

71
Q

Gilial cells

A

“Glue cells”

Cells in nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

  • play a role in learning, thinking, and memory
  • in more complex brains, proportion of glia to neurons increase
72
Q

Neurons

A

Nerve cell; basic building block of nervous system

73
Q

Dendrite

A

Branches around neuron that receives info and conducts it to cell body

74
Q

Axon

A

Single lengthy fiber that passes messages to other neurons or muscles or glands

75
Q

Neurogenesis

A

Process which new neurons are formed in the brain

  • happens part to stem cells (special cells that can developinto different types of cells like brain cells)
76
Q

Action potential

A

Neural impulse (neuron sends messages through)

  • a brief electrical charge that travels down the axon
  • if excitatory signal exceed threshold, action potential triggered –> all or nothing
  • rate of firing is measured : low stimulus = slow firing; high stimulus = fast firing
77
Q

Role of Myelin

A

Encases axon –> allow for greater transmission speed

  • crucial for neural efficiency, judgment, and self-control
  • if degenerates: multiple sclerosis results; communication to muscles and brain region slows
  • insulator for “passive” electrotonic transmission
  • signal “jumps” between gaps
78
Q

Synaptic transmission

A

Meeting point between neurons (synapse) have a small gap (synaptic gap)

  • when action potential reaches axon’s end, it sends messages (neurotransmitters) between synapse
  • excitatory synapses: receiving dendrites increase the likelihood of a cell firing
  • inhibitory synapses: receiving dendrites decrease the likelihood of a cell firing
  • how do dendrites know which neurotransmitter to receive –> neurotransmitter and receptor sites are like lock-and-key
79
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

Chemical messengers that cross synaptic gap between neurons

  • when released, neurotransmitters travel across synapse and bind to receptor site (like key fits lock)
  • unlock tiny channels at receiving site
  • excess neurotransmitters drift away, broken down by enzymes, or reabsorbed by the sending neuron (reuptake)
  • different neurotrasmitters (ex. ACh : learning, memory, muscle action)
80
Q

Agonist

A

A molecule that increase neurotransmitter’s action; excites neurons’ firing

  • increase production of neurotransmitters or block reuptake
81
Q

Antagonist

A

A molecule that decreases neurotransmitter’s action by blocking production or release

  • occupies receptor site and block neurotransmitter’s effect
82
Q

Endorphins

A

Natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

83
Q

Sensory neurons

A

Neurons that carry incoming info from body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

  • PNS
84
Q

Motor neurons

A

Neurons that carry outgoing information from brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

-CNS

85
Q

Interneurons

A

Neurons within brain and spinal cord

  • communicate internally and process info between sensory inputs and motor outputs
  • CNS
86
Q

Nervous Systems

A

Communication network in body

Central nervous system: brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system: gathering info and transmitting CNS decision to other body parts

87
Q

Somatic nervous system

A

Component of PNS

  • voluntary control of skeletal muscles
  • tap on shoulder and turn head
  • have sensory and motor neurons that connect CNS to teh rest of the body
88
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A

Component of PNS

  • controls glands and interanal organ muscles
  • glandular activity, heartbeat, digestion
89
Q

Sympathetic nervous system

A

Part of autonomic nervous system

  • arouses and expends energy
  • accelerate heartbeat, raise blood pressure, make you alert
90
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A

Part of autonomic nervous system

  • conserves energy
  • calm you down
91
Q

Reflexes

A

Automatic responses to stimuli

  • sensory neuron –> interneuron in spinal cord –> send motor neurons
  • reflex pathway runs through spinal cord and right back –> act before brain can react
92
Q

Endocrine System

A

Body’s “slow” chemical communication system

  • a set of glands and fat tissue that secret hormones into blood stream
93
Q

Hormones

A

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands

  • travel through bloodstream, and affect other tissues
  • influence interest in sex, food, and aggression
94
Q

Glands

A

Adrenal glands: ANS orders adrenal glands to release epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenaline and noradrenaline) when in danger

Pituitary gland (master gland): located in core of brain; growth hormone and oxytocin released

95
Q

Feedback system

A

ex. Brain –> pituitary –> other glands –> hormones –> body and brain

96
Q

fMRI

A

Technique for revealing blood flow, which shows brain activity, by comparing successive MRI scans

  • shows brain function and structure
97
Q

MRI

A

Technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft issue

  • good for detecting location and showing brain anatomy
  • bad for timing of brain activity
  • BOLD: blood oxygen level dependent
98
Q

EEG

A

An amplified recording of waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface

  • measured by electrodes placed on scalp
  • good for measuring timing of brain activity
  • bad for location of brain activity
99
Q

DTI

A

By capturing the direction and magnitude of water diffusion, DTI enables the visualization of neural pathways and connectivity, making it an indispensable tool for understanding brain anatomy, function, and pathology.

100
Q

PET

A

Detects brain activity by displaying where radioactive form of glucose goes while performing a given task

101
Q

Single electrode recording

A

Technique that uses an inserted microelectrode to measure the electrical activity of a single neuron

102
Q

MEG

A

Brain-imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from brain’s natural electrical activity

  • use head coil thats like salon hairdryer
  • measures speed and strength of magnetic fields caused by neurons creating electrical pulses
103
Q

Dorsal / ventral

A

Dorsal: top
Central: bottom

104
Q

Anterior / posterior

A

Anterior: in front of
Posterior: behind

105
Q

Medial / lateral

A

Medial: toward the center
Lateral: away from the center

106
Q

Hindbrain

A

Contains brainstem structures

  • essential survival functions: breathing, sleeping, arousal, coordination, balance
107
Q

Brainstem

A

Central core of brain , beginning where spinal cord wellss as it enter skull

  • responsible for automatic survival functions
  • part of hindbrain
108
Q

Cerebellum

A

Rear of the brainstem
- processes sensory input, coordinates movement output, coordinate balance, enable nonverbal learning and memory (ex. soccer player controlling ball)
- part of hindbrain

109
Q

Medulla

A

Brainstem’s base
- controls heartbeat and breathing
- part of hindbrain

110
Q

Midbrain

A

Connects hindbrain with forebrain

  • controls some movement and transmits info for seeing and hearing
111
Q

Forebrain

A

Manage complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, voluntary motor activities

112
Q

Thalamus

A

Sensory control center (except smell)

  • located on top of brainstem
  • directs messages to sensory receiving areas in cortex
  • transmits replies to cerebellum and medulla
  • part of forebrain
113
Q

Reticular formation

A

Nerve network that travels through brainstem into thalamus

  • filters info and plays an important role in controlling arousal
  • part of forebrain
114
Q

Limbic system

A

Neural system associated with emotions and drives

  • includes amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus
  • part of forebrain
115
Q

Amygdala

A

Neural clusters that enable aggression and fear

  • part of forebrain + limbic system
116
Q

Hippocampus

A

Neural clusters that help process explicit Memories
- part of forebrain + limbic system

117
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Neural clusters that influence bodily maintenance (hunger, thirst, body temperature, etc)

  • tries to maintain homeostatic internal state –> listens into blood chemistry and any incoming orders from other brain parts
  • part of forebrain + limbic system
118
Q

Cerebral hemisphere

A

Hemisphere of brain that controls perception, thinking, and speaking

  • part of forebrain
119
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A

Thin layer of interconnected neural cells covering forebrain’s cerebral hemisphere

  • ultimate control and information-processing center
    -gyrus : bulge of cortex
  • sulcus: crease of cortex
120
Q

Left hemisphere

A
  • process language
  • make quick, literal interpretations of langauge
  • math tasks
121
Q

Right hemisphere

A
  • makes inferences
  • help modulate speech
  • orchestrate self-awareness
122
Q

Frontal lobes

A

Portion of cerebral cortex at the forehead

  • involved in speaking, muscle movements, planning, judgment
  • steer us to kindness / away from violence
123
Q

Parietal lobes

A

Portion of cerebral cortex at the top rear of head

  • receives sensory input for touch and body position
124
Q

Occipital lobes

A

Portion of cerebral cortex at the back of the head / 뒷목

  • receive information from visual fields
125
Q

Temporal lobes

A

Portion of cerebral cortex above the ears

  • auditory areas; receive info from opposite ear
126
Q

Motor cortex

A

Cerebral cortex area at rear of frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

127
Q

Somatosensory cortex

A

Cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

128
Q

Auditory cortex

A

Cerebral cortex area in temporal lobes

  • info is from the opposite side ear
129
Q

Association areas

A

Cerebral cortex area not involved in primary motor or sensory function

  • found in all four lobes
  • involved in higher mental functions ; learning, speaking, remembering, thinking
130
Q

Do we only use 10% of the brain?

A

No.

Association areas have no observable responses / data, but it is still important to interpret, integrate, and act on sensory information

131
Q

Neuroplasticity and responses to damage

A

Neuroplasticity: brain ability to change in response to experiences

brain-damage effects is due to:
1. severed brain and spinal cord neurons can’t regenerate
2. some brain functions are preassigned to specific areas

Adapting
ex. blind person’s sensory cortex can invade visual cortex in order to better adapt to reading braille

132
Q

Split brain patients

A

Cut the corpus callosum and separate the right and left hemisphere of brain

  • personality and intellect intact
  • left hand and left visual field processed by right hemisphere and vice versa
133
Q

Ventricles

A

The ventricles play a key role in the circulation and absorption of CSF. CSF protects the brain and spinal cord, removes waste, and delivers nutrients.

134
Q

Structural and functional connectivity

A

Structural connectivity:
- brain’s “wiring diagram” created by axons that connect brain areas
- unique to individuals as fingerprints

Functional connectivity:
- how group of neurons within connectome (network) function in relation to types of cognition
- determined by the amount of correlated neural activity in two brain areas

135
Q

Twin studies

A

Between identical (monozygotic) twins and fraternal (dizygotic) twins, when separated, identical twins have more similiarities

Biological relatives more similar in personality than adoptive relatives

136
Q

Gene - environment interactions

A

Environment trigger gene activity

Environmental factors that can affect epigenetic molecules that regulate gene expression

  • attractive person growing up is more popular –> become more outgoing
137
Q

Gene expressions and epigenetics

A

Epigenetics: genes are “switched on” without altering DNA

  • interchange between heredity and the environment
  • environment can influence genetic expression
138
Q

Natural selection and adaptation

A

Certain biological and behavioral variations increase organism’s reproductive and survival chances in their particular environment –> offspring that survive pass their genes –> population characteristics change over time

139
Q

Corpus callosum

A

Large band of neural fibers connecting right and left hemisphere of brain and carrying messages between them

PSYC 1101 (1 decks)

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