EXAM 1 Flashcards
waste products examples
CO2, H+, solid waste, H2O, urea
- CO2 by-product of metabolism
- protons and H2O can form from chemical reactions
what does homeostasis relate to?
physiology
conditions inside our body that are maintained by constant conditions
How are tissues metabolic demands met?
deliver only enough blood to meet peripheral circulatory bed needs
- active cells burn oxygen/glucose
- changes the composition on the surrounding cells
- deficiency of nutrients detected by CV sensors
- metabolism increases by increasing BP
negative feedback examples
low BP
- increase SNS, decrease PNS
- increase AVP/ADH (arginine vasopressin, antidiuretic hormone) both released by pituitary gland. common in L&D
- decreased ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide)
high CO2
- increased respirations
- lower CO2
positive feedback GOOD
- checkpoints for safety
GOOD
- oxytocin induced uterine contraction
- injuried blood vessel, exposed co-ag factors, promote platelet plug formation. TXA2 mediated
positive feedback BAD
vicious cycles/ pathologic
- sepsis/necrosis
- acidosis
- severe hemorrhage
- aging in the kidney: age 45 nephrons die
kidney has 1million nephrons
how much blood can our body loose
20%
ex) 1 liter blood loss form 5 liters total blood
positive vs negative feedback for shock
negative feedback= compensated
- BP reduced initial but body able to compensate (vasoconstriction, increased HR, fluid shifts)
positive feedback= uncompensated
what cells are not capable for replication
if cell not able to replicate usually there is a progenitor cell nearby to perform the task
- RBC can’t (no nucleus) but bone marrow (progenitor stem cells) can. RBC last 90-120 days and then get replaced
- neurons in the CNS: not very fast or often
- heart cells: very slow rate
tissue vs organ definition
tissue: groups of cells that are like-minded, organize together to perform a function
organs: collections of different types of tissues. maintain internal environment
mitochondria
all cells have them
produce ATP from energy compounds and oxygen
peroxisomes
CATALASE enzyme degrades things inside cells via oxidation reactions
lots of peroxisomes in the liver (ethanol)
process toxins
lysosomes
acidic environment to degrade things inside the cell
recycling plant
dysfunctional protein: lysosome will destroy by pulling apart amino acids and releasing into the cytoplasm to be used by ribosomes for a new protein
where do most chemical reactions take place inside the cell
cytoplasm
70-80% water
nuclear wall
between the cytoplasm and the nucleus
double phospholipid bilayer
pores
very selective
steroids CAN enter to affect gene transcription to turn on stress response proteins
what structure extends from the nuclear wall
endoplasmic reticulum
- calcium storage (ex: muscle cells in the ER)
- rough/granular: produces proteins
- smooth: produces lipids
What things does our DNA encode for?
lipids or proteins
secretory vesicles
have active proteins or peptides that need to go outside the cell
EX: ADH or oxytocin in these vesicles move to the cell wall, fuse with it, and dump contents outside the cell wall
cells specialized for secreting signaling compounds have lots of these
protein production from the nucleus
IN NUCLEUS:
- DNA encodes a protein that is transcribed, producing RNA
RNA travels through nuclear wall to ribosomes, then translate the proteins
- 95% protein formation in ER ribosomes
- 5% protein formation in ribosomes in the cytoplasm (which don’t get packaged, do a lot of the heavy lifting)
amino acids
Alanine
Cysteine
Histidine
Phenylalanine
Serine
proline
how to ribosomes create proteins
RNA contains nucleotides in a specific order which dictates which amino acids from the cytosol get put together and what order
ribosomes move the RNA along its sensor to grab the amino acids
organelle examples
mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxisomes, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, transport vesicles, secretory vesicles
what are enzymes
give 3 examples
protein ending in -ase
speeds up/catalyzes a chemical reaction
- ATPase: pumps Na and K across cell wall by metabolizing ATP
-ATPase: in our muscle cells that help us have force to contract the muscle
- Catalase: enzyme in peroxisomes that oxidize compounds
structural components of the cell
-fillaments or proteins to “prop” it open/give shape
- big fat cell subject to external shape
- proteins allowing something to cross the cellular membrane
2 motility structures
cilia: small projections out of cell to move fluid/mucus around the cell (ex: airway)
flagella: moves a cell around its environment
Genetic material types
DNA in the nulceus, turns into RNA by transcription, RNA sent to ER for processing of fats/proteins
mitochondria DNA: separate from host/human DNA
- from mother
- 12-20 different sets
- can be used for lineage: crimes, ancestry)
- gives us variability in inheriting energy producing organelles that are super efficient… not only 1 version
3 functions of proteins
functional, structural, enzyme
“sugars”
glyco-
starch/sugar
carboxy-
carb-
sugar function in a cell
- glucose is converted into APT through glycolysis in the cytoplasm (anaerobic metabolic pathway)
- proteins have sugar attached to them for structural function or ID function
- glycoproteins: ID tags… self vs non-self… immune system can attack that cell
- “sticky” attaches cells together.. good or bad
- carboxyhemoglobin: sugar stuck to hemoglobin… making it less functional (inhibits aerobic metabolism… causing inflammatory cascade.. damage to CNS)
- external sugars (specific shape/charge)… mostly negative charge… repels proteins that are floating in the area (also negative charged).
*KIDNEY: uses these so not much protein is filtered in the urine
cell water
soluble VS insoluble things
soluble
- ions
- proteins (some) or partially soluble (the part exposed to water)
-carbohydrates (charged compounds.. glucose)
- CO2
- buffers (found in all compartments in our body, manage pH)
- some drugs
insoluble:
- cholesterol/lipids
- steroids
- drugs that have a carrier compound (propofol)
- N2O nitrous gas
what do non-soluable drugs typically contain
a carrier protein or lipid to carry the drug through the CV system (mostly water)
total body water
60% body mass
ICF: 2/3. 28L
ECF: 1/3. 14L
PLASMA: 1/4. 3.5L
ISF: 3/4. 10.5L
1L water = 1 kg
ICF: 70-80% water from whole body
cell membrane vs capillary membrane
cell membrane: between ICF and ECF
- tight barrier/impermeable
- hard for ions to get across unless a channel/pump
capillary membrane: separates plasma from ISF
- endothelia cells
- porous/permeable to small ions EXCEPT the brain
- prevents CV proteins from leaking out
homeostasis
steady state NOT equilibrium
things in the cell membrane
phospholipids
glycolipids (sugar attached to lipid)
cholesterol (could lead to rigid stiff vessels)
precursor molecules (cholesterol)
proteins
glycoproteins (sugar attached to protein)
glycocalyx (glycolipids and glycoproteins)
sum of all external sugar groups that body uses for immune system (ex. uncontrolled DM leads to massive inflammatory response and glycocalyx doesn’t look human)
what atoms make up the lipid tails in the cell wall
mostly carbon and hydrogen
cholesterol
planar molecule
rigid
increased membrane fluidity temp >37
lipid soluble, non polar
fatty compound in the cell wall
endothelial cells become stiff (atherosclerosis)
polar OH group sticks out exposed to water (inside or outside) used for something to grab it from the cell wall and metabolize it for something useful
transport proteins?
corticosteroid precursor?
cholesterol synthesis
exogenous 20% 1/5th
endogenous 80%
statins affected by:
Acetyl-CoA and Acetoacetyl-CoA
big sugar compounds that the body can use to build things. widely available by products of metabolism. if we have the right enzymes around we can use them to produce more ATP from glucose and oxygen OR create something (cholesterol)
cholesterol metabolites
testosterone (T)
estradiol (E2)
Progesterone
Androstenedione (testosterone precursor)
coritsol
aldosterone
cortisol and aldosterone (stress hormones) from adrenal gland. Receptors for both very similar and have cross reactivity
cortisol has an OH group that if sticks out in the ICF instead of ECF the cell can use it better
Each step is catalyzed by a different enzyme manipulating the cholesterol molecule and making different structures
