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Biol251 > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Chromosome

A

A structure made of a long DNA molecules with many genes.

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2
Q

Chromatin

A

The combination of DNA and protein which makes up a chromosome.

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3
Q

Nucleolus

A

The region inside the nucleus which synthesizes rRNA and creates ribosomal subunits from it.

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4
Q

Nucleus

A

Houses genetic information in eukaryotes.

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5
Q

Mitotic Spindles

A

Microtubules which invade the nuclear area to move the chromosomes.

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5
Q

Centrosome

A

A region near the nucleus which contains two centrioles.

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6
Q

Centrioles

A

9x3 ring structures of microtubules. They help organize the mitotic spindles.

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7
Q

Microtubules

A

Part of the cytoskeleton; made of tubulin dimers. Involved in the disjunction of chromosomes during cell division.

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8
Q

Microfilaments

A

Thinnest part of cytoskeleton. Involved in the formation of a cleavage furrow during cytokinesis.

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9
Q

Nucleioid

A

The region in a prokaryote which contains the singular circular chromosome.

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10
Q

NOR

A

Nucleolus organizer region; DNA which encodes for rRNA. Prokaryotes don’t have a NOR.

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11
Q

Intergenic DNA

A

DNA which does not code for a protein end product

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12
Q

Sister Chromatids

A

The two chromatids of a singular replicated (X-shaped) chromosome.

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13
Q

Cohesin

A

The material which holds the sister chromatids together.

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14
Q

Non-sister Chromatids

A

The chromatids of two replicated (X-shaped) homologous chromosomes.

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15
Q

G1

A

Gap 1: a phase of interphase where no DNA is synthesized, and where cellular activity is focused on growth. It contains unreplicated chromosomes.

Checkpoint: checks if cell is healthy enough to divide; if no, enters G0

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16
Q

G2

A

Gap 2: a phase of interphase following the S phase and preceding the M phase. The volume of the cell doubles in preparation for division. It contains replicated chromosomes, and thus twice the amount of DNA.

Checkpoint: checks to ensure DNA properly replicated

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17
Q

S

A

A phase of interphase following G1 in which DNA is replicated. Chromosomes change from I shape to X shape. It contains replicated chromosomes, and thus twice the amount of DNA.

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18
Q

M

A

The phase in which mitosis happens: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.

Checkpoint: before anaphase, checks to see if chromosomes properly aligned on plate

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19
Q

Centromere

A

The location where sister chromatids join. Its position determines the chromosome’s appearance.

A single centromere is a requirement for accurate segregation of chromosomes.

Chromosomes are counted by functional centromere.

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20
Q

Metacentric

A

Centromere in the middle

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21
Q

Submetacentric

A

Centromere slightly above middle

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22
Q

Acrocentric

A

Centromere approaching end

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23
Q

Telocentric

A

Centromere at end

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24
Q

P arm

A

Small arm of chromosome, “petite”

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25
Q

Q arm

A

Large arm of chromosome

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26
Q

Somatic cell

A

Cell of the body. All somatic cells have 2n and undergo mitosis.

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27
Q

Germline cell

A

Cell which produces gametes via meiosis.

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28
Q

Homologous chromosomes

A

Two chromosomes which exist in pairs with respect to arm lengths and centromere placements. They possess the same loci, but different alleles.

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29
Q

Biparental inheritance

A

A diploid organism receives one half of a homologous pair of chromosomes from either parent. Therefore, it receives two copies of every gene.

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30
Q

Interphase

A

The phase of the cell cycle during which mitosis is not happening.

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31
Q

Autosomes

A

Non-sex chromosomes.

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32
Q

Cyclin-dependent kinase

A

An enzyme which phosphorylates proteins involved in the cell cycle; inactive without cyclin.

Controls the cell cycle and its checkpoints.

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33
Q

Cyclin

A

The cofactor to kinase; its levels fluctuate in time with the cell cycle.

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34
Q

Karyokinesis

A

The division of genetic material.

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35
Q

Cytokinesis

A

The division of cytoplasm.

In animals: microfilaments constrict membrane, pinching it into a furrow

In plants: Cell plate is synthesized, partitioning cell

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36
Q

Mitosis

A

The asexual division of cells into daughter cells; basis of growth and repair; involves the equal distribution of chromosomes and cytoplasm.

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37
Q

Prophase

A
  • chromosomes begin to condense
  • nuclear envelope breaks down
  • spindle fibers begin to form, centrosomes begin to move
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38
Q

Anaphase

A
  • shugoshin degraded & centromere cohesin cleaved
  • centromeres split (disjunction)
  • daughter chromosomes begin movement to poles
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39
Q

Metaphase

A
  • chromosomes maximally condensed
  • separase degrades cohesin everywhere but centromere
  • centromeres align on metaphase plate
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40
Q

Telophase

A
  • daughter chromosomes arrive at poles
  • daughter nuclei begin to form
  • cytokinesis begins
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41
Q

Prometaphase

A
  • centrosomes reach poles
  • spindle fibers attach
42
Q

Meiosis

A

2n to n, then n to n; results in haploidy, done by germline cells to produce gametes

43
Q

Prophase I

A
  • chromosomes begin to condense
  • nuclear envelope breaks down
  • spindle fibers begin to form; centrosome moves towards opposite ends
  • Chromomeres form; homologs are bivalents
  • synapsis, tetrad and SC formed
  • crossing over
  • SC degraded, attached at chiasmata
  • spindle fibers attach
44
Q

Metaphase I

A
  • cohesin degraded (not at centromeres)
  • tetrads move to metaphase plate with random alignment
45
Q

Anaphase I

A
  • disjunction
  • dyads move to poles
46
Q

Telophase I

A
  • nuclear membrane forms around dyads
  • cytokinesis
47
Q

Metaphase II

A
  • centromeres positioned along metaphase plate
48
Q

Anaphase II

A
  • centromere cohesin degraded
  • dyads split apart to form monads
  • monads pulled to opposite poles
49
Q

Telophase II

A
  • one monad at each pole for every dyad
  • cytokinesis occurs
50
Q

Meiosis I

A

2n to n; tetrads pulled apart, dyads sorted

51
Q

Meiosis II

A

n to n; dyads pulled apart, monads sorted

52
Q

Shugoshin

A

A protein which protects cohesin at the centromere from degrading prior to anaphase.

53
Q

Telomere

A

Junk DNA ends of a chromosome.

54
Q

Separase

A

The enzyme which cleaves cohesin.

55
Q

Disjunction

A

The splitting of tetrads, dyads, and chromatids

56
Q

Cleavage furrow

A

The constriction in cytokinesis caused by microfilaments.

57
Q

Kinetochore

A

A location on the centromere to which microtubules attach.

58
Q

Chiasmata

A

The sites of crossing over. They promote attachment but are broken in anaphase I.

59
Q

Chromomere

A

Small beads on chromosomes representing condensed regions.

Serve as markers for homologs to know they’re homologs, allowing ‘rough pairing’ and ultimately the formation of bivalents.

60
Q

Crossing over

A

The exchange of genetic information between two non-sister chromatids of a tetrad during prophase I.

The sites of crossing over are known as chiasmata. They are broken in anaphase I.

61
Q

Synapsis

A

Homologs in a bivalent make contact and form a tetrad, attached at a synaptonemal complex

62
Q

Bivalents

A

One pair of homologs which have undergone rough pairing.

63
Q

Rough pairing

A

Due to chromomeres, distance between homologs closes, and a bivalent is formed

64
Q

Tetrad

A

Two replicated homologs attached to each other by a synaptonemal complex

65
Q

Synaptonemal complex

A

A protein complex which holds the tetrad together.

66
Q

Disjunction

A

The splitting of a tetrad.

67
Q

Dyad

A

An X-shaped chromosome which has undergone meiosis I.

68
Q

Monad

A

An unreplicated chromosome which has undergone meiosis II.

69
Q

Independent assortment

A

MENDEL:
Which member of a pair of unit factors a gamete receives doesn’t depend on what occurred in other pairs.

MODERNLY:
Homologs line up in metaphase I randomly, allowing for production of gametes with many different assortments of chromosomes

70
Q

Spermatogenesis

A

The process of creating spermatozoa from a spermatogonium

MEIOSIS I:
Primary spermatocyte to 2 secondary spermatocytes

MEIOSIS II:
secondary spermatocytes to 2 spermatids

differentiation into spermatozoa

71
Q

Oogenesis

A

The process of creating an ovum from an oogonium. The daughter cells don’t contain equal amounts of cytoplasm, and those containing less, the polar bodies, do not divide further.

MEIOSIS I:
Primary oocyte splits into secondary oocyte and first polar body

MEIOSIS II:
Secondary oocyte splits into ootid and second polar body

differentiation into ovum

72
Q

Spermatogonium

A

Undifferentiated diploid germ cell destined to become spermatozoa; grows into primary spermatocyte

73
Q

Oogonium

A

Undifferentiated diploid germ cell destined to become an ovum; grows into the primary oocyte

74
Q

Primary oocyte

A

In meiosis I, splits into the secondary oocyte (receives most of the cytoplasm) and the first polar body

75
Q

First polar body

A

A smaller haploid cell split off from the primary oocyte in meiosis I

76
Q

Secondary oocyte

A

A larger haploid cell split off from the primary oocyte in meiosis I

77
Q

Ootid

A

A larger haploid cell split off from the secondary oocyte in meiosis II. It differentiates into an ovum.

78
Q

Second polar body

A

A smaller haploid cell split off from the secondary oocyte in meiosis II.

79
Q

Spermatids

A

The haploid daughter cells of a secondary spermatocyte which has undergone meiosis II. They differentiate into spermatozoa.

80
Q

True breeding

A

Produces identical organism when self-fertilized; fully homozygous

81
Q

F1 generation

A

all identical heterozygous phenotype; self-fertilized to produce F2

82
Q

P1 generation

A

two true-breeding individuals

83
Q

F2 generation

A

member of F1 is selfed to produce F2; reveals recessive traits

84
Q

Reciprocal cross

A

The female’s genotype is as present as the male’s genotype in two crosses across alternating genders (for hermaphroditic plants)

85
Q

Unit factors

A

particulate causes of different traits; come in pairs in complete organisms, but only one is passed down; two are received from each parent. equivalent of genes/alleles

86
Q

Characters

A

heritable features with variations; category of phenotypes

87
Q

Traits

A

different versions of the character; phenotypes

88
Q

Test cross

A

A cross done to determine the genotype of an organism with a dominant phenotype

D- * dd

89
Q

Mendel’s Law of Segregation

A

During gamete formation, paired unit factors separate randomly

Each gamete receives one or the other with equal likelihood.

In modern terms, the chromosome the allele is on will end up in any meiotic daughter with equal likelihood.

90
Q

Product law

A

The probability of independent events occurring simultaneously = product of all individual probabilities

91
Q

Independent events

A

what happened in the past has nothing to do with future outcomes

92
Q

Sum law

A

two events may happen; this is the chance either of them do

probability of either events A or B happening = prob(A) + prob(B)

93
Q

Chance deviation

A

fluctuation from expected hypothetical ratio

impact decreased as # events increases

94
Q

Null hypothesis

A

What is created when we assume genetic data will fit into a given ratio

Assumes no difference between measured and predicted values, and that any difference can be attributed to chance

Never fully accepted, just not rejected

95
Q

Chi square analysis formula

A

sigma ((o-e)^2 / e)

96
Q

Mendel’s Four Postulates

A
  • Dominance/recessiveness
  • Unit factors are paired
  • Segregation
  • Independent Assortment
97
Q

Prophase II

A
  • condensation begins
  • spindle fibers form
  • spindle fibers attach
98
Q

Chi-sqaure o

A

observed value

99
Q

Chi-square e

A

expected value

based on total number of offspring; apply expected ratio through multiplication

i.e, 150 total, 3:1 expected
3/4 * 150 = 112.5 dom

100
Q

Probability value (p)

A

p cutoff is usually at 5% or .05
p<0.05, rejected hypothesis

101
Q

Degree of Freedom

A

df = n-1, where n = # of possible outcomes
for 3:1, n=2, so df=1

102
Q

Critical chi-square

A

the cutoff
if chi square < (less than) chi square critical, accepted null hypothesis

Biol251 (8 decks)

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