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Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is homeostasis and who coined the phrase and when?

A

Homeostasis describes the maintenance of nearly constant conditions in the internal environment (extracellular fluid). This is done by numerous “controls” within the body. Walter Cannon coined this term in 1929.

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2
Q

Give examples of how the 2 hearts, lungs, GI system, and kidneys support homeostasis…

A

2 heart pumps are responsible for circulating blood and cells to facilitate gas exchange by the lungs. The lungs can speed up or slow down their rate to manipulate the body’s pH. The GI system provides nutrients in usable forms to our cells and the kidneys are responsible for generating buffers and maintaining our BP.

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3
Q

Give a few examples of ways the body can combat hypotension via negative feedback loops.

A

It can increase the sympathetic response (HR and contractility) to increase CO and MAP. It can also decrease parasympathetic outflow to increase MAP. It can increase ADH and decrease ANP to increase MAP.

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4
Q

Give two examples of physiologic positive feedback.

A
  1. Oxytocin induced uterine contractions and childbirth
  2. The clotting cascade and platelet plug formation
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5
Q

What makes positive feedback loops physiologic versus pathologic?

A

They are physiologic so long as they have checkpoints and they stop at the checkpoints.

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6
Q

Give examples of pathologic positive feedback loops.

A

Sepsis, severe acidosis, atherosclerotic plaque formation, and diabetic renal inflammation

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7
Q

Describe how shock can go from compensated to decompensated in terms of feedback loops.

A

Negative feedback works in early stages of shock to compensate, but at a certain point this negative feedback is insufficient and this is decompensated shock. Positive feedback at this point leads to death.

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8
Q

What is the cytoplasm?

A

Synonymous with cytosol. This is the area inside the cell and is made up of 70-80% water. This is where the initiation of translation begins and a lot of chemical reactions occur.

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9
Q

What is the nucleus?

A

This is a barrier that houses our genetic material. The walls surrounding the nucleus are made up of double phospholipid bilayers.

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10
Q

What is the endoplasmic reticulum and what is different about the rough ER and the smooth ER?

A

The rough ER has ribosomes which make proteins by translating RNA. The smooth ER makes fats or lipids. The ER can also store calcium.

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11
Q

What is the golgi apparatus?

A

Where proteins and fats go after the rough and smooth ER respectively to be modified. This is where post translational processing occurs. From here they are packaged in vesicles and transported.

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12
Q

What is the mitochondria?

A

The “powerhouse” of the cell. Where ATP is made, which is the primary source of energy used by cells.

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13
Q

What is a peroxisome?

A

A digestion organelle that degrades things (mainly toxins ex. ethanol) via oxidation reactions.

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14
Q

What is a lysosome?

A

A digestion organelle that uses acid (like lipases and hyrdolases) to degrade things, mainly proteins.

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15
Q

List 4 ways sugar compounds are used as components of the cell

A
  1. As ID tags for the immune system
  2. To attach cells together (sticky)
  3. In glycolysis to make ATP (energy)
  4. They are negatively charged so they can repel other negatively charged proteins
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16
Q

Describe two different motility structures

A

Cilia move the fluid and environment outside of the cell. Flagella can move the cell (like a tail)

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17
Q

The nucleus houses our DNA but another organelle has its own set of DNA, which organelle and what is unique about this DNA?

A

In the mitochondria. This DNA only comes from our mother’s and can be used for identification and ancestry.

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18
Q

How much of the body mass is made up of water? (AKA total body water or TBW)

A

60%

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19
Q

How much of our TBW is found in the ICF?

A

2/3

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20
Q

How much of our TBW is found in the ECF?

A

1/3

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21
Q

What two compartments make up the ECF compartment and how much of the ECF do they account for (in fractions).

A

Plasma (1/4 of the ECF)
Interstitial fluid (3/4 of the ECF)

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22
Q

Is the more Na in the ICF or ECF? How much more?

A

ECF. 10x more Na in the ECF.

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23
Q

Is there more K in the ICF or ECF? How much more?

A

In the ICF. More than 30x more.

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24
Q

Is there more Ca in the ICF or ECF? How much more?

A

ECF. There is 10,000x more!

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25
Q

Is there more Mg in the ICF or ECF?

A

It’s higher in the ICF. It’s a cofactor for lots of reactions inside the cell.

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26
Q

Is there more Phos in the ICF or the ECF?

A

In the ICF. Phos is an important buffer for inside the cell.

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27
Q

Is there more glucose found in the ICF or ECF?

A

The ECF. Glucose comes from external sources and gets used up in the cell.

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28
Q

Where would you find more bicarb? In the ICF or ECF?

A

ECF. It’s an important extracellular buffer.

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29
Q

Is there more Cl in the ICF or ECF?

A

ECF. There is more Cl wherever there is more Na.

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30
Q

What is the total osmolarity in the ICF and the ECF in mOsm/L? What causes it to be the same for both?

A

300 mOsm/L. Water is able to move across the barriers to even out the concentration.

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31
Q

Name some compounds that can be found in the cell wall…

A

phospholipids, glycolipids, glycoproteins, glycocalyx, cholesterol and other proteins and precursor molecules

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32
Q

Are the more amino acids and proteins in the ICF or ECF?

A

ICF. This is where A.A. are being used to make proteins and where the proteins are most functional.

33
Q

What is the glycocalyx? Give an example of how this is involved in immune response.

A

All the glycolipids and glycoproteins combined. Ex. someone with uncontrolled diabetes will have more sugar in their blood which elicits a massive inflammatory response. This manipulates the glycocalyx, which no longer looks normal to the immune system and it attacks these “foreign” cells. (Auto immune disorders)

34
Q

What are 4 characteristics of cholesterol?

A

It is lipid soluble, it is a planar molecule, it decreases membrane fluidity (rigid), it is a precursor for corticosteroids.

35
Q

Where does cholesterol come from?

A

80% is endogenous (made from acetyl-CoA and acetoacetyl-CoA) 20% from what we eat

36
Q

Name 4 sex hormones and 2 stress hormones that cholesterol is used to synthesize

A

estradiol, progesterone, testosterone, and andostenedione
Cortisol and aldosterone

37
Q

What are phosphatidyls and name the 4 main compounds we talked about in class

A

They are specialized phospholipids.
1.Phosphatidylinositol (PI)
2. Phosphatidylserine
3. Phosphatidylethanolamine (PE)
4. Phosphatidylcholine (PCh)

38
Q

What are phosphatidyls used for?

A

Most of them are used for surfactant production. PI is also used in muscle contractions (IP3). PCh is used to store choline which can later be used to synthesize acetylcholine.

39
Q

What is Phosphatidylserine used for and what enzyme is responsible for repositioning serines that are out of place?

A

It is used as an immune marker. If a cell is healthy their serine faces inward. If it faces outward the immune system will attack it. The enzyme flipase corrects the position of the serine which can abate the immune response and inflammation associated with it, but the enzyme requires a lot of ATP.

40
Q

Arachidonic acid is the parent compound to which 3 pathways

A
  1. Prostaglandins
  2. Leukotrienes
  3. HETE’s and EET’s
41
Q

What drugs act on our prostaglandin pathway and how do they work?

A

NSAIDs inhibit COX1 and COX2 enzymes which catalyze the reaction of forming prostaglandins PGG2 and PGH2 from Arachidonic acid. These enzymes elicit the inflammatory response in the body

42
Q

Give an example of an NSAID that targets more COX1. What is good and bad about COX1 inhibitors?

A

Aspirin. COX1 is an enzyme that is more widespread throughout the body and inhibitors that are more selective for this enzyme can have bleeding risks as less TXA2 is produced

43
Q

What is TXA2 (thromboxane A2)?

A

A prostaglandin that is released when a blood vessel gets injured. It works by tightening the blood vessel and initiates physiologic vasospasms to help control the bleeding.

44
Q

Give and example of an NSAID that targets more COX2. What is good and bad about COX2 inhibitors?

A

Naproxen. These are much more specific and thus potent for pain relief, but they are also more nephrotoxic and can cause more coronary artery attacks.

45
Q

What is simple diffusion and what is capable of crossing the cell wall this way?

A

A means of crossing the cell wall using a chemical or electrical gradient. This does not require any binding, conformation changes or releasing and does not require energy. Gases, ions and water can cross by simple diffusion. Ions and water can fit through the ion channels.

46
Q

Water traveling through aquaporins into the cell is an example of which type of cellular transport?

A

simple diffusion

47
Q

What is facilitated diffusion?

A

Facilitated diffusion allows compounds to cross the cell wall by binding a protein, eliciting a conformational change and releasing said compound into the cell.

48
Q

Give an example of facilitated diffusion

A
  1. GLUT4 transporter proteins in the muscle and fat cells. These are insulin dependent and transport sugar into the cell.
49
Q

What are GLUT1 transporters used for?

A

These are transporter proteins used to shuttle glucose into RBC’s. These are not insulin dependent.

50
Q

What is primary active transport?

A

This method of transporting compounds across the cell wall involves the use of energy, or ATP.

51
Q

Give 3 examples of primary active transport.

A
  1. Na/K ATPase pump.
  2. Calcium pumps to get Ca out of the cell
  3. Proton pumps in our stomach’s acid producing cells.
52
Q

How does the Na/K ATPase pump work?

A

It pumps 3 Na out of the cell and 2 K into the cell. It maintains the electrochemical gradient but also must work against it, so it requires ATP.

53
Q

What is secondary active transport?

A

A means of transporting things across the cell wall using indirect energy derived from the electrochemical gradient (does not directly use ATP)

54
Q

Give 2 examples of secondary active transport

A
  1. The sodium calcium exchanger. It exchanges 1 Ca for 3 Na (what our cells use for the bulk of Ca removal like muscle cells, counter-transport)
  2. Na/glucose pumps (in the kidneys) can couple Na using its electrochemical gradient to shuttle glucose into the cell (co-transport)
55
Q

What is the difference between osmolality and osmolarity?

A

Osmolality is a measure of a certain quantity (mOsm) dissolved in 1 kg of H20
Osmolarity is the measure of a certain quantity (mOsm) dissolved in 1 L of solution. Only about a 1% difference between the two. We will use osmolarity.

56
Q

What is the total osmotic pressure of a water containing cell? How do we get this number?

A

~5440 mmHg! It is the corrected osmolar activity (280 mOsm/L) multiplied by 19.3 mmHg/mOsm in 1L (this is the amount of pressure one would have to apply to prevent osmosis)

57
Q

What is the Nernst equation and what is it used for?

A

EMF (mV) = +/-61 x log([Ci]/[Co]) EMF is the electromagnetic force (EMF) (- for a cation, + for an anion) [Ci] is the concentration inside the cell and [Co] is the concentration outside the cell

58
Q

For the Na/K ATPase pump, where does all the Na come from and where does it go? in exchange for what?

A

Na comes from Na/Ca pumps (3Na in to get 1 Ca out), also from action potentials. Some Na sneaks in as well. The Na/K pump uses 1 ATP to push 3 Na out of the cell for 2 K to come into the cell against their concentration gradients.

59
Q

What makes the inside of the cell negative/ makes the resting membrane potential negative?

A

The net loss of a + charge from the Na/K ATPase pump (3+out/2+in) and there are lots of proteins on the cytosolic side of the cell wall to participate in cell signaling (these proteins carry a slight - charge because there are more electronegative amino acids)

60
Q

What contributes to the resting membrane potential being -80mV?

A

This is very close to the EMF of K, which is -91 mV. This is because, at rest the cell wall is permeable to K and Na, but 10x more permeable to K, which is why this potential is negative. (For reference the EMF of Na is +61 mV)

61
Q

Why does facilitated diffusion have a plateau or Vmax, while simple diffusion increases linearly?

A

Facilitated diffusion is “slowed down” by conformational changes and by all of the transporter proteins being saturated.

62
Q

Describe osmotic pressure…

A

It is the physical pressure required to prevent osmosis from occurring through a semi-permeable membrane. For example, if there is 1 mOsm of solute added to one side of the membrane in a tube full of water, water will want to go to that side via osmosis, but osmotic pressure maintains this system.

63
Q

What is an easy way to calculate a total osmolarity if you know your patient’s serum sodium? Give an example.

A

Double it. So if your patient has a serum Na of 140 mOsm/L, total osmolarity should be about 280 mOsm/L.

64
Q

Why do some people take creatine before a heavy workout?

A

Creatine is mainly found in the skeletal muscles where it gets phosphorylated. When taxing your muscles you are able to pull a phosphate off of a creatine for a short term boost in energy.

65
Q

Where will you find more lactate? Inside the cell or outside the cell?

A

Inside the cell (ICF). It is a metabolic byproduct and lots of these metabolic reactions are occurring within the cell.

66
Q

Where will you find more ATP? In the ECF or the ICF?

A

ATP should only exist in the ICF. Adenosine (without the phosphates) can be found outside the cell. This happens when energy is very depleted and this signals for increased perfusion to that tissue.

67
Q

Give 3 reasons why cells are electronegative at rest

A
  1. The proteins on the inside of the cell wall usually carry a negative charge (more negatively charged amino acids)
  2. Na/K ATPase pump generates a net negative charge
  3. Cell membrane is 10x more permeable to K, so the Vrm will most closely resemble the EK of potassium
68
Q

Define equilibrium potential (EK)…

A

Also known as the Nernst potential inside the cell to prevent the movement of the ion along it’s concentration (the ion is at equilibrium) measured in mV

69
Q

What is the resting membrane potential?

A

This is the membrane potential of the cell at rest. It takes into account all ions that cell is permeable to (like K, Na and Cl) and the relative permeabilities to each of those ions. This number is usually around -80 mV.

70
Q

What does it mean when a cell is polarized?

A

There is a difference in electrical charge between the inside and the outside of that cell.

71
Q

What does it mean when a cell is hyperpolarized?

A

The cell becomes more polar, there is a greater charge differential between the inside and the outside of the cell

72
Q

What does it mean if a cell is depolarized?

A

The cell is less polar. Aka the inside is more positive (outside of the cell is also positive) This occurs when an action potential is generated.

73
Q

What is repolarization and what causes it?

A

This is the return to electronegative resting membrane potential. In starts as soon as the Na gates shut. The K “leak” channels opening are responsible for repolarization.

74
Q

What causes depolarization in an action potential?

A

Fast voltage gated Na channels. The activation gate (M) opens and almost as fast as that happens, the inactivation gate (H) shuts. Na floods the cell, increasing its potential to a +mV.

75
Q

Give a few examples of drugs that work on these fast Na channels

A

-caines. Like Lidocaine and bupivacaine. These work to relieve pain by numbing the area.

76
Q

What causes hyperpolarization?

A

Opened K+ channels from repolarizing the cell contribute to an increase K permeability in the cell membrane. This brings the membrane potential even closer to the equilibrium or Nernst potential of K+

77
Q

What enzyme is responsible for making leukotrienes from arachidonic acid?

A

LO, Lipoxygenase

78
Q

What enzyme if responsible for making prostaglandins PGG2 and PGH2 from arachidonic acid?

A

COX, cyclooxygenase

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