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Exam 1 Flashcards

Internal Environment, The Cell, Transport of substances through Cell Membranes

1
Q

Where are Lipids synthesized in the cell?

A

The Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

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2
Q

Where are Proteins synthesized in the cell?

A

The Ribosomes attached to the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

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3
Q

What happens at the Golgi Apparatus

A

Proteins are modified and sent out in vesicles

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4
Q

Who coined the phrase Homeostasis?

A

Walter Cannon

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5
Q

What is the “Internal Environment”

A

Extracellular Fluid

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6
Q

What is Negative Feedback?

A

Changes are “sensed” & the body responds to oppose/counter change.
Change is Negative to stimuli

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7
Q

What is Positive Feedback

A

Change is seen and is amplified
Can be known as “vicious cycle”

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8
Q

A healthy body can handle how much blood loss?

A

1 Liter (20%)

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9
Q

What is the suffix “-“ used to identify enzymes?

A

“-ase”

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10
Q

Fluid inside of the cell?

A

Intracellular fluid

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11
Q

Fluid outside of the cell?

A

Extracellular fluid

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12
Q

Ions typically found inside of the cell?

A

Potassium, Magnesium, Phosphate

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13
Q

Ions typically found outside of the cell?

A

Sodium, Chloride, Bicarbonate

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14
Q

How do Peroxisomes rid of toxins?

A

Oxidation Reactions

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15
Q

What is the “Checkpoint” for oxytocin-induced uterine contraction?

A

Birth

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16
Q

What is the “Checkpoint” for the blood clotting cascade?

A

Bleeding Stopped

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17
Q

How many RBCs are typically found in the body?

A

25 Trillion RBCs

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18
Q

What is the percentage of water in the cell? (Cytoplasm)

A

75-85%

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19
Q

In what way do lysosomes rid of unwanted substances?

A

The use of highly acidic conditions

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20
Q

What is the Cell membrane composed of?

A

Proteins and Lipids (mostly lipids)

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21
Q

The tail end of the lipid bilayer is?

A

Hydrophobic

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22
Q

The head of the lipid bilayer is?

A

Hydrophilic

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23
Q

What is something that is allowed in the nucleus?

A

Steroids

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24
Q

Where can Peroxisomes by found?

A

Liver

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25
Q

What is a common toxin peroxisomes rid of?

A

Ethanol (alcohol)

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26
Q

What can be stored in the Endoplasmic Reticulum?

A

Calcium

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27
Q

What is Homeostasis?

A

the maintenance of nearly constant conditions in the internal environment

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28
Q

How many cell are in the body?

A

About 35 Trillion

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29
Q

What is output energy?

A

Work, heat, potential energy

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30
Q

Relationship between PNS and SNS?

A

Inverse relationship, help maintain homeostasis

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31
Q

What is the Negative Feedback change for a decreased MAP with SNS?

A

An increase in SNS outflow

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32
Q

What is the Negative Feedback change for a decreased MAP with PNS?

A

A decrease in PNS outflow

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33
Q

What is the Negative Feedback change for a decreased MAP with AVP/ADH?

A

Arginine Vasopressin (AVP) & Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) increase

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34
Q

What is the Negative Feedback change for a decreased MAP with ANP?

A

Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) decrease

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35
Q

What are checkpoints in Positive Feedback?

A

Safety valves, point where positive feedback stops

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36
Q

Pathology of Positive Feedback in Severe Acidosis: CNS effects

A

CNS is depressed which decreases respiratory drive, worsens acidosis (pH decreases)

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37
Q

Pathology of Positive Feedback in Severe Hemorrhage

A

Loss of blood causes drop in MAP, leads to coronary blood flow; which leads to decrease in cardiac output; causes further decrease in MAP

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38
Q

Pathology of Positive Feedback in Sepsis/Necrosis

A

Systemic infection causes cellular death; cells die & release by products into ECF affecting neighboring cells

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39
Q

Pathology of Positive Feedback in Diabetic Renal Inflammation/Hyperfiltration

A

Decreased nephron regeneration, leads to increased workload of remaining nephrons, shortened nephron lifespan, worsened renal conditions

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40
Q

Pathology of Positive Feedback in Atherosclerotic Plaque Clotting

A

Overactive clotting cascade leads to clot formation in arteries, can lead to MI/Stroke

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41
Q

Pathology of Positive Feedback in Peripheral Acidotic conditions

A

Cellular dysfunction, impaired blood flow, and reliance on anaerobic metabolism worsens acidosis

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42
Q

How many liters blood in the Human body?

A

5 Liters

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43
Q

What is the smallest living unit?

A

A cell

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44
Q

What cells have difficulty Replicating?

A

Neuron and Cardiac

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45
Q

Can RBCs replicate?

A

No (no nucleus), RBCs are produced by bone marrow progenitor cells

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46
Q

How long do RBCs live

A

90-120 days

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47
Q

What causes cells being unable to replicate

A

Lack of Nucleus

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48
Q

What is the function of Nucleus?

A

To protect the DNA

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49
Q

Describe the Nuclear membrane

A

“Nuclear wall or envelope”, a double phospholipid bilayer.
very selective

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50
Q

What is the Endoplasmic Reticulum?

A

Extension of the nuclear wall; produces lipids, proteins

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51
Q

What percentage of proteins are synthesized on the ribosomes attached to the Rough ER?

A

95%

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52
Q

What is an Enzyme

A

A protein that catalyzes chemical reactions

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53
Q

What is produced by the Mitochondria?

A

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

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54
Q

List 5 examples of organelles in the cell

A

Mitochondria, Peroxisomes, Lysosomes, Golgi Apparatus, Endoplasmic Reticulum

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55
Q

ATP production starts in?

A

In the cytosol with anaerobic metabolism (glycolysis)

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56
Q

Glycolysis produces __ ATP

A

2

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57
Q

Sugars on the cell surface can have ___ charge

A

Negative

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58
Q

Due to __ charge; Sugars on cell surface ___ proteins

A

Negative; Repel

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59
Q

Sugars on cell surface can be “”

A

Sticky

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60
Q

Prefixes for sugars (3)

A

Glyco-
Carboxy-
Carb-

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61
Q

Flagella

A

Motility structure; assist with cell movement, one long thread-like structure

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62
Q

Cilia

A

Small projections that come out of cell

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63
Q

Mitochondria DNA is..?

A

inherited by our mother

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64
Q

How many “sets” of mitochondrial DNA do we carry

A

about 12-20 (gives variability in body’s ability to inherit energy producing organelles)

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65
Q

Hydrophilic

A

like water; charged; Ions are found here

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66
Q

Hydrophobic

A

Oils (fats) found here, uncharged; lipid soluble

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67
Q

List common soluble substances

A

Ion; proteins; carbohydrates; CO2

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68
Q

List common insoluble substances

A

Cholesterol; Steroid Hormones; Lipids; Nitrous gas

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69
Q

What helps maintain pH?

A

Buffers

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70
Q

Insoluble drugs need a __ to travel in the body

A

a Carrier Protein/Lipid

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71
Q

Popular example of an insoluble drug utilizing lipid based carrier is?

A

Propofol

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72
Q

Total Body Water (TBW) is?

A

60% of body weight (Kg)

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73
Q

Intracellular fluid makes up

A

2/3 of TBW

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74
Q

Extracellular fluid makes up

A

1/3 of TBW

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75
Q

Extracellular fluid is divided into

A

Plasma and Interstitial fluid

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76
Q

Plasma fluid makes up

A

1/4 or 1/5 of ECF

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77
Q

Interstitial fluid makes up

A

3/4 or 4/5 of ECF

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78
Q

Without a mediator the cell wall will not let __ permeate

A

Charged Ions/molecules

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79
Q

Capillary membrane typically prevents __ from leaking out to interstitial fluid

A

Plasma (cardiovascular) Proteins

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80
Q

Capillaries found within the brain are

A

very tight

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81
Q

Steady State vs. Equilibrium

A

Steady state - tightly regulated differences that help maintain homeostasis.
Equilibrium - attempt to keep all concentrations the same (no bueno for us)

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82
Q

Notable difference between Plasma & Interstitial is?

A

Protein Concentration; higher in Plasma
(Plasma - 1.2) (ISF - 0.2)

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83
Q

Why is the protein concentration difference needed in Plasma and ISF?

A

Must be higher in Plasma to keep blood in the vascular system

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84
Q

Normal Sodium (Na+) range in ECF

A

140 -142 mOsm/L

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85
Q

ICF sodium concentration?

A

1/10th of ECF (10:1 ratio)

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86
Q

ECF Osmolarity can be estimated by:

A

Doubling ECF sodium

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87
Q

Normal ECF Osmolarity is:

A

280 - 283

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88
Q

Potassium (K+) ECF normal range

A

4 mEq/Ls

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89
Q

Potassium (K+) ICF normal range

A

30 times ECF (140) (neurons 120)

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90
Q

ICF Calcium concentration

A

zero or near it

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91
Q

ECF to ICF calcium ratio

A

10,000:1

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92
Q

Magnesium is used as

A

a cofactor for ICF chemical reactions

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93
Q

Magnesium has a higher concentration in

A

ICF

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93
Q

Primary Anion in ECF

A

Chloride (Cl-)

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94
Q

Chloride follows which cation

A

Sodium (Na+)

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95
Q

Secondary Anion in ECF

A

Bicarbonate (HCO3-)

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96
Q

Primary buffer of ECF

A

Bicarbonate (HCO3-)

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97
Q

What organ manages bicarb levels?

A

Kidneys

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98
Q

Important ICF buffer

A

Phosphate (HPO)

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99
Q

Phosphorylation is?

A

the attachment of a phosphate to a protein

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100
Q

Dephosphorylation is?

A

the detachment of a phosphate from a protein (Release of energy)

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101
Q

Phosphate in the cell can be used as?

A

Energy storage system (store ATP) or be used as a form of energy

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102
Q

Phosphates are more abundant in?

A

ICF

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103
Q

ATP

A

Adenosine + 3 phosphates; main source of energy for cells

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104
Q

Majority of Plasma is?

A

Albumin

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105
Q

Amino acid concentration is greater in the?

A

ICF; proteins are synthesized in ICF

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106
Q

Creatine is found in the?

A

Skeletal muscle

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107
Q

Phosphocreatine is

A

Creatine with a phosphate stuck to it;
High energy storage compound;
Phosphate when pulled of creatine releases energy (used before ATP consumption)

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108
Q

Lactate is Higher in the

A

ICF (Byproduct of metabolism)

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109
Q

Adenosine can leak out of cell if

A

the cell is highly metabolically active or in a low energy state

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110
Q

Adenosine in the ECF

A

increases (opens vessels) blood flow in area that is highly metabolically active

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111
Q

Cells are reliant on an external source of

A

Glucose

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112
Q

Protein concentration Plasma : ISF

A

5 : 1

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113
Q

Total sum mOsm/L (osmolarity)

A

about 300 mOsm/L

114
Q

Corrected mOsm/L (osmolarity)

A

280 - 283 mOsm/L

115
Q

Why do we correct for osmolarity

A

Ionic compounds can be formed in the ECF due to different charges (ex. Na+ & Cl-)

116
Q

___ moves freely between ICF & ECF (Plasma & ISF)

A

Water; helps keep consistent osmolarity between all three

117
Q

Glycolipids

A

carbohydrates (sugar) covalently bonded to lipids

118
Q

Glycoproteins

A

sugar stuck to a protein; found on cell membrane

119
Q

Glycocalyx

A

combination of glycoproteins & glycolipids

120
Q

Glycocalyx

A

sum of all external sugar structures; used in cell adhesion & recognition / immunity

121
Q

Cholesterol is

A

a fatty, uncharged compound

122
Q

Cholesterol can be thought of as __ & __

A

planar and rigid (it reduces cell fluidity)

123
Q

Cholesterol is a long chain of carbon and hydrogen with an __

A

OH group (polar)

124
Q

Body temperature and rigidity of cholesterol are

A

Directly proportional (normal temp rigid/low temp more fluid)

125
Q

Sex hormones produced by cholesterol

A
  • Estradiol
  • Testosterone
  • Progesterone
  • Androstenedione (precursor to testosterone - used by baseball players)
126
Q

Atherosclerosis

A

condition in which fatty deposits (cholesterol) build up on the inner wall of arteries

127
Q

The term “glycocalyx” refers to what?

A

The negatively charged carbohydrate layer on the outer cell surface

128
Q

Which of the following best describes the osmolarity of a solution containing 150 millimolar NaCl, assuming a temperature of 37 C & dissociation constant of 0.93 (inmilliosmoles)

A

279 (150 x 2 x 0.93)

129
Q

Cholesterol in the body comes from

A

80% endogenous
20% diet (exogenous)

130
Q

Cholesterol makes blood vessels more

A

Rigid (not good for CV)

131
Q
  • statin
A

HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors
- reduce amount of endogenous cholesterol created

132
Q

Cholesterol is a precursor for (6)

A
  • Estradiol
  • Progesterone
  • Testosterone
  • Androstenedione
  • Cortisol
  • Aldosterone
133
Q

Stress hormones produced by Cholesterol

A
  • Cortisol
  • Aldosterone
134
Q

There is cross-reactivity between cholesterol derivatives and their receptors because

A

Their molecular shape is very similar

135
Q

Phosphatidyl

A

means phospholipid

136
Q

Surfactant

A

produced in lungs to reduce surface tension of alveoli & keep lungs from collapsing

137
Q

Phosphatidylinositol (PI) can be used in

A

Smooth muscle; regulates contraction (precursor to IP3)

138
Q

Phosphatidylcholine (PCh) can be used to

A

stash choline for production of acetylcholine

139
Q

Phosphatidylserine (cytosolic)

A

immune marker

140
Q

In order to not elicit immune response Phosphatidylserine should be ___ the cell wall

A

facing inside

141
Q

All four phosphatidyl compounds play a role in surfactant production which are:

A
  • Phosphatidylinositol (PI)
  • Phosphatidylethanolamine (PE)
  • Phosphatidylserine (cytosolic)
  • Phosphatidylcholine (PCh)
142
Q

Flippase

A

Enzyme responsible for “flipping” phosphatidylserine back toward facing inward

143
Q

Flippase is dependent on

A

ATP (flipping PE requires energy)

144
Q

In a low energy state describe the effects of Phosphatidylserine on the cell.

A

Phosphatidyl will orient outward on cell wall. In low energy state (no ATP) flippase will not be able to reorient it. An immune response will result and destroy the cell.

145
Q

Sphingomyelin is a precursor of ___ used in the ___

A

Myelin; Nervous system (constructs myelin)

146
Q

Thromboxane A2 (TXa2) helps control bleeding by

A

Vasospasms; facilitates clotting/healing of injured vessel

147
Q

COX1 & COX2 are

A

Enzymes that catalyzes two reactions which results in Prostaglandins & TXA2

148
Q

Prostaglandins are perceived as

A

ramping up pain signals

149
Q

Inhibition of COX 1 results in

A

Bleeding; Cox1 found all over body

150
Q

Inhibition of COX2 results in

A

reduced pain

151
Q

In the event of pain the COX2 gets

152
Q

Strongest OTC pain medication

A

Naproxen (more COX2 specific)

152
Q

Drugs more selective for COX1 more likely to

A

Cause bleeding (decreased TXA2 production) Ex. aspirin

153
Q

Leukotrienes (LT) are responsible for

A

immune mediated inflammation

154
Q

Example of leukotriene receptor antagonist

155
Q

Lipoxygenase (LO)

A

enzymes responsible for converting Arachidonic Acid to leukotrienes

156
Q

3rd “arm” of Arachidonic pathway produces

A

HETEs & EETs compounds resulting in acute inflammatory responses (like acute renal failure)

157
Q

The main pathways of Arachidonic Acid

A
  • Prostaglandin-thromboxane pathway
  • Leukotriene-lipoxygenase pathways
  • HETE & EET pathways
158
Q

Arachidonic Acid &HETE/EET are __ while Leukotrienes & Prostaglandins are __

A

Hydrophobic;
Hydrophilic

159
Q

Enzymes are

A

Proteins that function as catalyst

160
Q

Simple diffusion is

A

the crossing of the membrane with out aid (does not require energy)

161
Q

Gases cross the membrane via

A

simple diffusion

161
Q

Channel proteins

A

provide conduit that allows specific molecules or ions to cross membrane via simple diffusion

162
Q

Utilizing a channel protein does not require

A

Binding, conformational change, or energy (considered simple diffusion)

163
Q

A cell at rest is __ charged

A

negatively

164
Q

An active cell is __ charged

A

positively

165
Q

Substances tend to move from ___ concentration to ___ concentration

A

Higher ; Lower

166
Q

Facilitated Diffusion

A

utilizes aid from a protein but does not require energy

167
Q

Active transport

A

movement across the membrane that requires energy

168
Q

Water moves across the cell membrane via

A

Aquaporin channels (AQR) or sneak in with ions via ion channels

169
Q

Ion channels

A

Transmembrane protein that allows specific ions to diffuse across membrane down its electrochemical gradient

170
Q

Movement against the electrochemical gradient requires

A

Energy (active transport)

171
Q

Sodium-Potassium ATPase pump

A

Utilizes ATP to actively transport
- 3 Sodium (Na+) ions out of cell
- 2 Potassium (K+) ions into cell

172
Q

One cycle of the Na-K pump requires __ and moves __ out & __ in

A

1 ATP to dephosphorylate;
3 Na out
2 K in

173
Q

The single most energy requiring process is

A

The ATPase pump

174
Q

Na/K pump uses up

A

60-70% of cell energy

175
Q

First degree active transport

A

Primary active transport process that directly uses ATP by the pump itself

176
Q

Calcium pump moves Ca ion outside of cell & requires ATP & is considered

A

Primary active transport (1st degree)

177
Q

Proton pumps of the stomach use ATP directly to

A

Move Hydrogen ions (protons) outside the cell making outside environment acidic (1st degree active transport)

178
Q

Sodium Calcium Exchanger (NCX Transporter)

A

Exchanges 1 Ca ion out of cell; & swaps it for 3 Na ions inside of cell (Relies on electrochemical gradient of sodium)

179
Q

Sodium Calcium Exchanger is an example of

A

Second degree active transport; process does not directly use ATP

180
Q

Sodium Glucose Transporter (SGLT)

A

Moves glucose into cell while simultaneously carrying sodium down its gradient (does not utilize ATP itself; 2nd degree active transport)

181
Q

Where can SGLT be found?

182
Q

Steps in facilitated diffusion

A
  1. Bind to something outside cell wall
  2. Undergo conformation change
  3. Release compound inside cell
183
Q

GLUT transporter

A

Carrier proteins that move glucose across membrane

184
Q

GLUT-4 transporters are

A

Insulin activated;
Insulin increases transporters to membrane which increases glucose entering cell

185
Q

GLUT-1 transporters are

A

found on RBCs; non-insulin dependent glucose transporters

186
Q

The speed of facilitated diffusion depends on (2)

A

Number of transporter receptors & concentration gradient

187
Q

Ubiquitous

A

found everywhere; widely spread

188
Q

The Total Osmotic Pressure is calculated by

A

Multiplying the corrected osmolar activity by 19.3 mmHg

189
Q

Osmolality is

A

Qty mOsm / 1 kg H20

190
Q

Osmolarity is

A

Qty mOsm / 1L of solution (used in class)

190
Q

The molecular weight of Na & Cl is

A

58.4 g/mol

191
Q

Difference between osmolality & osmolarity

A

the difference is the size of the solution (about 1%)

192
Q

Top part of osmolarity equation is

A

how much (quantity)

193
Q

Bottom part of osmolarity equation is

A

volume measurement

194
Q

Water likes to move from areas of __ water concentration to __ water concentration

194
Q

Semipermeable membrane restricts

A

movement of solutes; allows water to cross

195
Q

Equilibrium potential of Na

196
Q

Equilibrium potential of K

197
Q

1mOsm moves how many mmHg?

198
Q

Proteins have a net __ charge making the resting cell more ___

A

Negative ; Negative

199
Q

GLUT-4 can be found in

A

Muscle/fat

200
Q

Vmax is the

A

maximum speed at which conformational change can occur during facilitated diffusion

201
Q

There is no Vmax in

A

Simple diffusion

202
Q

What are the 2 things that affect speed of facilitated diffusion

A

Concentration & Conformational change

203
Q

What can affect rate of diffusion?

A
  • Concentration gradient
  • Lipid solubility
  • Size of particle / size of pore
  • Number of pores
  • Kinetic movement (temperature - higher temp)
  • Physical pressure
  • Electrical Charge
204
Q

As Na is being pumped out of cell what follows?

A

water (this keeps intracellular volume in check)

205
Q

Intracellular osmolarity is regulated by (kept down)

A

The difference in 2K & 3Na during ATPase pump; the extra Na being pumped out keeps intracellular osmolarity down

206
Q

During an action potential what floods the cell?

207
Q

Resting membrane potential of a cell is

208
Q

At rest a cell is

A

negatively charged

209
Q

During an action potential a cell is

A

Positively charged

210
Q

A voltage refers to a

A

potential difference between two places

211
Q

Nernst Potential is also known as

A

Equilibrium potential

212
Q

What is the Equilibrium Potential formula

A

+/- 61 x log (concentration inside/concentration outside)

213
Q

Equilibrium potential for Na?

A
  • 61 x log(14/140) = 61mV (when Na enters cell; makes it more positive)
214
Q

Equilibrium potential for K?

A
  • 61 x log(120/4) = -90mV (when K leaves cell; makes it more negative)
215
Q

The Nernst Potential tell us

A

what the membrane potential would be for one specific ion

216
Q

The permeability of K is ___ times greater than that of Na at rest

217
Q

The resting charge on a resting cell is much more dependent on __ than it is on ___

A

Potassium ; Sodium

218
Q

The Goldman equation combines

A

combines all individual equilibrium potentials for each ion of interest, used to determine overall membrane potential

219
Q

Increasing sodium permeability makes the membrane potential more

220
Q

Increasing potassium permeability makes the cell more

221
Q

Activity of the Na+ -K+ pump is reduced in

A

Hypokalemia

222
Q

An increase in extracellular K+ makes the membrane potential more

223
Q

Glucose is higher on the __ than the __ of a cell

A

outside; inside

224
Q

Drugs that end in -caine affect

A

“fast” sodium gated channels
ex. Lidocaine, Bivocaine

225
Q

Polarization

A

difference in electrical charge between inside & outside of cell (resting cell negative)

226
Q

Depolarized

A

become less polar; become more POSITIVE (action potential)

227
Q

Hyperpolarized

A

become more polar; MORE NEGATIVE than at rest (overshoot)

228
Q

Repolarization

A

To return to Vrm or resting activity, negative (-80mV)

229
Q

Neurons have a lot of __ permeability which affects membrane potential

A

Chloride (Cl-)

230
Q

Leaky channels are

A

always open

231
Q

At rest we have __ sodium leak channels open & __ of potassium leak channels open

232
Q

Fast sodium channels give us an

A

Action potential

233
Q

In the heart, a plateau during an action potential allows for

A

myocardial muscle contraction, the longer the plateau the longer the contraction (more squeeze)

234
Q

Conductance is

A

how much ion flow or potential current i have (inverse of resistance); describes relative ease at which ion can cross membrane

235
Q

Hyperpolarization (overshoot) is caused by

A

Extra potassium channels being open & trying to return to Vrm quickly & channels closing slowly

236
Q

What types of channels are involved in actions potentials?

A

Voltage-Gated channels (Na+ & K+)

237
Q

Driving force refers to

A

speed at which ions will want to cross into cell membrane

238
Q

Driving force depends on 3 thing:

A
  • What is the charge of the ion
  • What is the concentration gradient for the ion
  • What is the charge of the inside of the cell
239
Q

Which ion typically has the greatest driving force?

A

Calcium (10,000 (out):1 gradient (in), & double the positive charge)

240
Q

Which ion typically has the least driving force?

A

Potassium (30:1 gradient in vs out)

241
Q

Equilibrium potential describes

A

the charge that is required on the inside of the cell to prevent an electrolyte (ion) from moving down its concentration gradient

242
Q

Under resting conditions, K is hindered from leaving cell by

A

cell negative charge; despite there being several K leaky channels

243
Q

Under resting conditions, Na is hindered from entering cell by

A

there being fewer Na leaky channels compared to K

244
Q

Membrane potential is

A

the “potential” to have current, only need the potential to have current, do not actually need a current

245
Q

The activation gate is also known as

A

The M-gate (outermost)

246
Q

The inactivation gate is also known as

A

The H-gate (innermost)

247
Q

What are the Na+ gates doing in resting conditions?

A
  • M-gate is closed
  • H-gate is open
248
Q

When activated both Na gates are

A

open (Na floods in for short period of time)

249
Q

When inactivated, the Na gates are

A
  • M-gate is open
  • H-gate closed
250
Q

To reset Na+ channel what must happen

A
  • M-gate must close (1st) then
  • H-gate must reopen (2nd)
  • M-gate then reopens (3rd)
251
Q

Voltage-Gated Potassium channels aid in

A

Repolarizing cell after action potential (slow)

252
Q

Potassium channel gate is located

A

on inside of cell

253
Q

When do Potassium channels begin to close?

A

at Vrm (-90mV)

254
Q

Potassium channels are __ to open & __ to close

A

Slower & slower

255
Q

Hyperkalemia will __ membrane potential

A

Increase (cell will not be able to fully reset, slowing down action potentials)

256
Q

What is a negative affect of cell membrane potential being increased

A

Cell will not be able to fully rest (Vrm), hindering future action potentials (fewer Na sodium channels will open)

257
Q

Membrane potential of a cell will favor that to which has the greatest ___

A

Permeability

258
Q

When do K+ channels open?

A

During Repolarization

259
Q

What enzymes do peroxisomes use?

260
Q

What are waste products of metabolism

A

CO2, H+, solid waste, H2O, urea, & heat

261
Q

How many nephrons do the kidneys have?

A

1 million each; 2 million total

262
Q

Peptides are

A

two or more amino acids; short chains

263
Q

What enzymes do lysosomes use?

264
Q

What drug was VERY specific for cox2; which lead to heart/kidneys issues

265
Q

Oxytocin is produced where?

A

Hypothalamus

266
Q

Acetyl-CoA is used to

A
  • produce ATP from Glucose & O2
  • produce cholesterol
267
Q

Every single lung issue is a product of

A

a surfactant issue

268
Q

Which edema is more difficult to deal with ICF or ECF?

269
Q

Calcium does what to cells?

A

Turns them on

270
Q

What Hyperkalemic value will always lead to v-fib?

271
Q

If a cell is not able to return to Vrm, what can it lead to?

A

Increased Vrm; less action potentials or slowing down of action potentials

272
Q

Where is AVP/ADH produced?

A

Posterior Pituitary

273
Q

mmHg calculations are done at?

274
Q

Cortisol has an __ group that aldosterone does not

275
Q

Primary role of phosphodiesterase?

A

Enzyme that converts cAMP to AMP

276
Q

Primary role of guanylate cyclase?

A

Enzyme that converts GTP to cGMP

277
Q

Primary role of phospholipase A2?

A

Enzyme that breaks down phospholipids to release arachidonic acids

278
Q

Primary function of adenylate cyclase?

A

Enzyme that converts ATP to cAMP

A & P (6 decks)

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