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Functional Large Animal Anatomy > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Homeostasis

A

-Maintenance of internal conditions in face of external perturbations
-maintaining a dynamic steady state of internal environment
-normal set point for physiologic parameters

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2
Q

Homeostatic control

A
  1. Body detects deviations from normal
  2. Integrate information with needs of the body
  3. Respond by adjusting or adapting to restore homeostasis
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3
Q

Homeostatic control can be ___ or____

A

Local, systemic

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4
Q

Homeostatic control is always

A

Coordinated by feedback/feedforward loops

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5
Q

Homeostatic factors

A

-pH
-Fluid volume and pressure
-Temperature
-H2O, salt/electrolytes
-Waste products
-O2 and CO2
-Nutrients

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6
Q

Negative feedback loop

A
  • Sends a signal back to the stimulus, reducing the intensity of the stimulus
  • Bringing the body closer to homeostasis
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7
Q

Examples of negative feedback loops

A
  • Appetite
    – Hormones
    – Blood glucose
    – Thermoregulation (at the level of the skin)
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8
Q

Positive feedback loops

A

-Sends a signal back to the stimulus, increasing the intensity of the stimulus
-Pushes the body farther away from homeostasis, as a means to an end

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9
Q

Examples of positive feedback loops

A

• Parturition
• Hormones
• Blood clotting
• Lactation

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10
Q

Feedforward loops

A

• An anticipatory response
– Precedes a stimulus
– Can be preventative

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11
Q

Examples of feedforward loops

A

– Salivation
– Motor control
– Anxiousness
– Lactation

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12
Q

What do cells do?

A

• Acquire things (uptake)
• Build things (synthesis)
• Converts things (metabolism)
• Reproduces (proliferates)
• Dies (apoptosis)

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13
Q

Nucleus

A

– Control center
– Houses DNA
– Site of transcription
– DNA to mRNA

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14
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum

A
  • Rough
    – Studded with ribosomes
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15
Q

Ribosomes

A
  • Site of translation
    – mRNA to protein
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16
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

– Takes proteins from ER
– Post-translational modification
• Activates proteins
– Works with vesicles to package p

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17
Q

Phospholipids

A

• Phosphate head (-)
– Hydrophilic
• Lipid (long fatty acid chains) tail (neutral)
– Hydrophobic

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18
Q

Cholesterol

A

• Between phospholipids
• Fluidity/flexibility
• Reduce permeability

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19
Q

Membrane protein receptors

A

• Bind specific ligands
• Cause intercellular response
• Open/close channel
• Promotes endocytosis

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20
Q

Examples of chemical messengers

A
  • paramones
  • hormones
  • neurotransmitters
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21
Q

Paramones

A

Local (interstitial space)
• Histamines, cytokines, growth factors

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22
Q

Hormones

A

• Systemic (bloodstream)
• Multiple target tissues
• Insulin, FSH, GH

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23
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

• Neuronal cells after synapse

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24
Q

Examples of passive transport

A
  • Facilitated diffusion
  • Simple diffusion
  • Osmotic diffusion
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25
Q

Simple diffusion

A
  • O2, CO2
    – Move down concentration gradient
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26
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

-Permitted movement down gradient
– Ions, AA, CHO

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27
Q

Active transport

A

– Independent of gradient
• Na+/K+ ATPase Pump
• Requires energy
– leak, ion gated, ligand gated

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28
Q

Chemical gradient

A

One molecule occurs at higher
concentration on one side of the
membrane

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29
Q

Electrical gradient

A

Charged molecule occurs a higher
concentration on one side of
membrane

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30
Q

Electrochemical gradients

A

Chemical and
electrical gradients exist at the same
time

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31
Q

Membrane potential

A

– Difference in electrical voltage in ECF and ICF
OR
– Separation of charges across membrane
• Na+, K+ Cl-, intracellular proteins –
• harness potential energy

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32
Q

Polarity of membrane

A
  • Negative on inside
  • positive on outside
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33
Q

Only _____ cells respond to changes in potential

A

Excitable

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34
Q

Resting potential is established by

A
  • sodium- potassium pump
  • 3 Na out, 2 K in
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35
Q

Electrochemical gradient

A

– + outside
– - inside

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36
Q

Na+ concentration gradient

A

Pumped out, stays out

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37
Q

K+ concentration gradient

A

– Pumped in, flows out
– Equilibrates with electrical gradient
~ -70 to -90 mV

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38
Q

For resting potential:

Electrochemical gradient flows ___, Na concentration gradient flows ____, and K concentration gradient flows _____

A

Outside in, outside in, inside out

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39
Q

Membrane potential steps

A
  1. Stimulus
  2. Depolarization
  3. Repolarization
    4.Refractory period
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40
Q

Stimulus (membrane potential)

A

Potential rises above threshold (from -90 to -55 mV)

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41
Q

Depolarization

A

• Voltage-gated Na channel open, Na rushes in (down conc. Gradient)
• Charges reversed (+30mV)
• Adjacent Na channels open

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42
Q

Repolarization

A

• Na channels lock
• Voltage-gated K channels open, K rushes out
• Charges reversed again

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43
Q

Refractory period

A

• K channels close & lock
• No more action potential
• Na/K ATPase restores resting potential

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44
Q

Action potential in endocrine cells

A

• Excretion of pre-packed vesicles (exocytosis)
– Hormones, enzymes

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45
Q

Action potential in muscle cells

A

• Opens Ca channels on membrane/sarcoplasmic reticulum
– Muscle contracts

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46
Q

Action potential in neuronal cells

A

• Secretion of neurotransmitters
– Norepinephrine
– Acetylcholine

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47
Q

Cell body of neuronal cells

A

Soma, nucleus and organelles

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48
Q

Dendrites

A

Somal branches
Receives upstream signals

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49
Q

Axon

A

• Tubular extension/tail
• Transmits signal downstream
• Starts at axon hillock (base of tail)
• Travels to axon terminal (tip of tail)
• Causes neurotransmitter release

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50
Q

Myelin coat/sheath

A

Intermittent lipid cover

51
Q

Axons are formed by _____

A

Non-neuronal support cells

52
Q

Schwann cells are found in

A

Peripheral nerves

53
Q

Oligodendrocytes are found in the

A

Central nervous system

54
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

Bare axon surface where action potential is generated/propagated

55
Q

Saltatory conduction

A

Action potential skips over myelinated areas
– Increases propagation speed by reducing “stops”
– Requires less Na and K movement
• Less ATP needed to restore concentration gradients with Na/K Pump

56
Q

Synapse

A

Point where information is passed

57
Q

Synapse is the association between ___ and _____

A

Axon terminal and target (excitatory) cells

58
Q

Synaptic cleft

A

Space between knob and target cell

59
Q

Synaptic knob

A

• Bell-shaped ending of axon
• Contains synaptic vesicles

60
Q

Synaptic vesicles in chemical transmission

A

Packaged neurotransmitters

61
Q

In chemical transmission ____ causes ____ to open, causing _____

A

Action potential, Ca channels, exocytosis

62
Q

During chemical transmission ____ move across the cleft causing receptors to bind to ______

A

Neurotransmitters, target cell

63
Q

Action potentials move from

A

Pre synaptic to post synaptic cells

64
Q

Role of glial cells

A

• Structure
• Protection
• Nourishment

65
Q

Astrocytes

A

– In CNS
– Help organize neurons
– Deliver nutrients, clear neurotransmitters, balance ions

66
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

– Myelinate axons in CNS

67
Q

Schwann cells

A

– Myelination axons in PNS

68
Q

Ependymal cells

A

– Line brain ventricles/central canal
– Produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
• Surface cilia circulate CSF

69
Q

Microglia

A

-Phagocytic cells
• Remove invading organisms

70
Q

Neurons make up ___ of total cells in the brain

A

10%

71
Q

Spinal cord

A

– Passageway between brain and body
– Coordination of some basic reflexes
– Source of motor nerves
– Destination of sensory nerves

72
Q

Meninges

A

CNS wrapping membranes

73
Q

Dura mater

A

– Tough, outmost layer
– Has sinuses where blood and CSF recombine

74
Q

Arachnoid mater

A

– CSF-filled middle layer
– Villi project into dura sinuses for CSF transfer

75
Q

Pia mater

A

– High vascular inner layer
– Includes cells that form CSF

76
Q

Brain capillaries have ____ junctions

A

Tight

77
Q

Molecules that can pass through brain capillaries

A

• Lipid-soluble particles
-O2, CO2, steroids, alcohol
• Membrane-bound protein carriers
-HIGHLY selective
-Glucose, AAs, ions

78
Q

Cerebral spinal fluid

A

Cushions brain (and spinal cord) & provides nutrients

79
Q

Cerebrum

A

– Largest area of the brain
– Highest complexity
– Highest thought
• Consciousness
• High degree of educability

80
Q

Cerebral cortex

A

Outermost tissue

81
Q

Gray matter

A

• Cell bodies/dendrites
• Vasculature

82
Q

White matter

A

• Bundles of myelinated axon fibers
• “tracks” for neural pathways

83
Q

Occipital lobe

A

Visual processing cortex

84
Q

Temporal lobe

A

Auditory cortex

85
Q

Parietal lobe

A

• Somatosensory cortex
• Body position

86
Q

Primary motor cortex

A

Initiate movement

87
Q

Supplementary motor complex

A

Coordinating movement

88
Q

Premotor complex

A

Planning movement/problem solving

89
Q

Broca’s area

A

Frontal lobe
• Articulation/execution of speech
• Based on information from Wernicke’s area

90
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

Temporal lobe
• Articulation/execution of speech
• Based on information from Wernicke’s area

91
Q

Hippocampus

A

• Learning and memory

92
Q

Olfactory bulb

A

Smell

93
Q

Basal nuclei

A

Motor control and executive functions

94
Q

Vestibulocerebellum

A

• Maintains balance
• Controls eye movement

95
Q

Spinocerebellum

A

• Coordinates w/ cerebral cortex for motor control
• Predicts body position

96
Q

Cerebrocerebellum

A

• Majority of cerebellum
• Lower voluntary action
• Some procedural memories

97
Q

Brain stem

A

• “lowest”/least complex function
– Sleep/wake, alertness, basic touch/pressure
– Systems activity

98
Q

Medulla

A

– Swallowing, salivation
– Vomiting (CTZ)
– Respiration
– Blood pressure
– Heart rate

99
Q

Pons

A

– Changes in RR and BP
– Analgesic system, sleep

100
Q

Midbrain

A

Motivation

101
Q

Spinal cord contains

A

– White & gray matter
– Meninges
– CSF

102
Q

Spinal withdrawal

A

Withdrawing body part from damaging sources

103
Q

Spinal stretch

A

Contracting skeletal muscle to counteract stretch

104
Q

Crossed extensor reflex

A

Shifts load from injured limb to other

105
Q

sensory nerves

A

afferent division
-detect conditions in body tissues
-alert CNS

106
Q

motor nerves

A

efferent division
-begins in CNS
-terminate in target tissues (excitable cells)

107
Q

somatic division

A

voluntary

108
Q

autonomic division

A

involuntary

109
Q

sensory nerves (3)

A

-receptor/dendrite
-axon
-cell body

110
Q

receptor/dendrite

A

-Receptor near dendrite tips
-Receptor part of dendrite tips
-Affect axon hillock potential

111
Q

axon

A

-Connects to dendrites
-Carries signal to CNS (via action potential)

112
Q

cell body

A

-Axon “offshoot”
-Skips depolarization during action potential
-Groups located in dorsal root ganglia

113
Q

Sensory nerve receptor types

A

-Photoreceptors: light
-Mechanoreceptors: stretch/bending
-Thermoreceptors: heat/cold
-Osmoreceptors: ECF molarity
-Chemoreceptors: detect chemicals
-Taste/smell
-O2/CO2 in blood
-Nutrients in GI tract
-Nociceptors: pain

114
Q

the intensity of sensation in nerve receptors is determined by _______

A

action potential amount

115
Q

frequency code

A

1 neuron stimulating another over and over

116
Q

population code

A

several neurons stimulating an action/working against one another

117
Q

tonic receptors

A

gradual adaptation (ex. Muscle stretch receptors)

118
Q

phasic receptors

A

rapidly adapt (ex. Odor, touch, temperature)

119
Q

ANS efferent motor division: voluntary

Short preganglionic neurons originate in _________
and their correlating neurotransmitter is _______

A

middle of the spinal cord
acetylcholine (ACh)

120
Q

ANS efferent motor division: voluntary

Long preganglionic neurons originate from ________
and their correlating neurotransmitter is _______

A

ganglion to target
norepinephrine (NE)

121
Q

ANS efferent motor division: involuntary

Short preganglionic neurons originate in _________
and their correlating neurotransmitter is _______

A

ganglion to target
acetylcholine (ACh)

122
Q

ANS efferent motor division: voluntary

Long preganglionic neurons originate in _________
and their correlating neurotransmitter is _______

A

brain stem or low spinal cord
acetylcholine (ACh)

123
Q

Somatic nervous system (SNS)

A

-motor neurons
-one-neuron “chain”
-originate at ventral horn of spinal cord
-axon is continuous to skeletal muscle

124
Q

SNS stimulates the ______ ONLY

A

skeletal muscle

Functional Large Animal Anatomy (1 decks)

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