Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
A field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within organizations for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organization’s effectiveness; what people do in organizational settings and how it affects organizational performance
A
Organizational Behavior
2
Q
Inputs –> Processes –> Outcomes
A
Basic OB Model
3
Q
Predictor; presumed to influence the dependent variable; expected to account for (or cause) the dependent variable
A
Independent Variable
4
Q
Criterion; an outcome or something affected by the independent variable; the variable to be explained
A
Dependent Variable
5
Q
A contingency or “it depends on” variable; a variable that causes the relationship between the independent and dependent variables to vary
Ex: relationship between pay and job satisfaction DEPENDS ON one’s perceived career opportunities
A
Moderators
6
Q
Consistency of measurement; a test is reliable if it gives the same results when repeated
Ex: test-retest
A
Reliability
7
Q
Can we trust the conclusions from the research? Does it measure what it claims to be measuring? What is the strength of the relationship between the study variables? Can we be sure the independent variable caused the effect we observed?
A
Internal Validity
8
Q
Are the research conclusions generalizable to other people, situations and time?
A
Generalizability (External Validity)
9
Q
More control (internal validity) but less generalizable (external validity)
A
Lab Studies
10
Q
More generalizable (external validity) but less control (internal validity)
A
Field Studies
11
Q
Measure of the degree to which two variables are related
A
Correlation
12
Q
Measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables
Ranges from -1 to +1
Sign (+ or -) indicates direction- positive or negative
Absolute value indicates the strength of the relationship
A
Correlation Coefficient
13
Q
A positive feeling about the job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics
A
Job Satisfaction
14
Q
A state in which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals
A
Organizational Commitment
15
Q
Degree to which people identify with their jobs and see performance as important to their self-worth
A
Job Involvement
16
Q
Degree to which employees believe the organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being
A
Perceived Organizational Support (POS)
17
Q
Degree of enthusiasm for one’s job
A
Employee Engagement
18
Q
Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events
A
Attitudes
19
Q
Cognitive, Behavioral, Affective
A
3 Components of an Attitude
20
Q
The opinion or belief segment of an attitude
A
Cognitive Component
21
Q
The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude
A
Affective Component
22
Q
An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something
A
Behavioral Component
23
Q
Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes
A
Cognitive Dissonance
24
Q
The degree to which a person identifies with a job, actively participates in it, and considers performance important to self-worth
A
Job Involvement
25
Employees' belief in the degree to which they affect their work environment, their competence, the meaningfulness of their job, and the autonomy in their work
Psychological Empowerment
26
Companies are increasingly prioritizing employee happiness to retain and energize staff. Various methods, from surveys to technology like AI and heart-rate monitors, are used to monitor and enhance employee well-being. However, privacy concerns arise as monitoring becomes more extensive. Striking a balance between using technology for well-being and respecting privacy is a challenge faced by companies. The focus on employee happiness is driven by the belief that happy employees are more productive and contribute to a positive corporate culture.
WSJ "Smile- Your boss is tracking your happiness"
27
The use of annual employee surveys is questioned due to low response rates, vague concepts like "engagement," and the lack of meaningful action based on results. Surveys often fail to address big issues or are too lengthy, leading to disengagement from employees. The data obtained may not be anonymous, and companies may not act on the results due to factors like cost or lack of internal interest. The article suggests more efficient alternatives, such as analyzing exit interviews, studying benefits enrollment choices, using focus groups, and leveraging existing data from communication platforms. Pulse surveys with a limited number of questions are proposed for more actionable insights. The article concludes by suggesting that employee surveys, over a century old, should be retired in favor of more contemporary tools and approaches.
WSJ Article "It's time to get rid of employee surveys"
28
The article challenges the prevalent concept of employee engagement, arguing that it is often misunderstood and misused. The author suggests that engagement is an outcome of organizational performance, not a cause. Drawing on historical research, the article recommends using engagement as a diagnostic tool rather than a goal, comparing it to monitoring blood pressure for health. The importance of distinguishing between engagement and motivation is emphasized, urging managers to focus on motivation, ability, and employee opportunities for performance improvement. The author calls for a critical evaluation of engagement assessments and demands access to individual data for more effective organizational diagnostics.
LI Article "Sorry, workforce engagement isn't the answer and never was"
29
Caused by specific event, very brief in duration (seconds or minutes), specific and numerous in nature, usually accompanies by distinct facial expressions, action-oriented in nature
Emotions
30
Cause is often general and unclear, last longer than emotions (hours or days), more general, generally not indicated by distinct expressions, cognitive in nature
Mood
31
Broad range of feelings that people experience, can be experienced in the form of emotions or moods
Affect
32
communication, team building and collaborations, motivation, decision making
What are the functions of emotions?
33
An employee's expression of organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work
Emotional Labor
34
the individual's actual emotions
Felt Emotions
35
required/appropriate emotions
Displayed Emotions
36
Involves displaying emotions that are not genuinely felt. It is an outward expression of emotions that are expected or required by the job, regardless of the individual's true emotional state.
Surface Acting
37
Involves making a conscious effort to align one's inner feelings with the required emotional display. It goes beyond the surface and aims to genuinely experience the expected emotions.
Deep Acting
38
suggests employees act emotionally to things that happen to them at work which influences job performance and satisfaction; work events trigger positive or negative emotional reactions to which employees' personalities and moods predispose them to respond with greater or lesser intensity
Affective Events Theory
39
perceive emotions in the self and others
understand the meaning of these emotions
regulate/manage one's emotions
Emotional Intelligence (3 Components)
40
the way in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others
Personality
41
personality research says change in major traits occurs naturally
What determines the type of personality we have? (nature vs. nurture)
42
self-report personality inventories- MBTI, CPI, NEO-PI-R, HEXACO
observer ratings- co-worker, manager, recruiter perceptions
projective tests- rorschach (ink blot test)
How is personality measured?
43
extroversion vs. introversion
sensing vs. intuition
thinking vs. feeling
judging vs. perceiving
MBTI Dimensions
44
Extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, openness to experience
Big 5
45
Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy
Dark Triad
46
general, poor reliability, only positive characteristics
Weaknesses of MBTI
47
the way personality translates into behavior depends on the strength of the situation
strong situations (ex. military) suggest the right or correct behavior and discourage wrong behaviors... personality does not have much of an effect
in weak situations, anything goes and personality is more likely to influence your behavior
Situational Strength Theory
48
some situations or events "activate" or trigger a trait more than others
using this theory, we can predict which jobs will suit certain personality
Trait Activation Theory
49
Argues that people are attracted to and selected by organizations that match their values
Person-Organization
50
A theory that identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover
Person-Job
51
This article challenges the belief that personality is fixed and suggests that personality change is possible with deliberate effort. The key tips include identifying traits to change, starting small and being specific, "faking it until you make it" by emulating desired behaviors, leveraging existing strengths, tracking progress through logs or journals, and maintaining consistency over the long term. The analogy of personality change to losing weight underscores the importance of taking actionable steps and staying committed to the process.
WSJ "You can change your personality? Start small"
52
The use of pre-hire assessments in the hiring process is on the rise in the United States, with eight of the top 10 private employers implementing such tests. These assessments, which evaluate traits like friendliness and multitasking, are designed to improve hiring accuracy and reduce turnover. The article suggests that, as more companies adopt pre-hire tests, job seekers face higher standards, making it challenging, especially for young adults and the long-term unemployed, to secure employment. The increased use of these assessments is seen as part of a broader shift in hiring practices, contributing to longer job vacancies and a more selective approach by employers.
WSJ "Today's personality tests raise the bar for job seekers"
53
Stage 1- selective attention/comprehension
Stage 2- encoding and simplification
Stage 3- storage and retention
Stage 4- retrieval and response
Social Information Processing Model
54
Factors in the situation
- time
- work setting
- social setting
Factors in the perceiver
- attitudes
- motives
- interests
- experience
- expectations
Factors in the target
- novelty
- motion
- sounds
- size
- background
- proximity
- similarity
Factors that influence perception
55
General issue- how good are we at accurately processing and storing information
56
Suggests that when we observe an individual's behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused
Attribution Theory- process and why it may result in faulty decision making
57
distinctiveness- whether an individual displays different behaviors in different situations
consensus- whether other people facing a similar situation respond the same way
consistency- does the person respond the same way across time
Kelley's Model of Attribution: Consensus, Consistency, & Distinctiveness
58
fundamental attribution error
self-serving bias
selective perception
Perceptual Biases & Errors
59
focus on goals
don't try to create meaning out of random events
look for information that disconfirms your beliefs
use WRAP method
Wider set of options
Reality-test assumptions
Attain some distance
Prepare to be wrong
Implications for managers-
Behavior follows perception, so to influence behavior at work,
assess how people perceive their work, their work context, the
behavior of others, and the organization. Often behaviors we find
puzzling can be explained by understanding the initiating
perceptions
How to reduce the effects of errors and biases
60
expectations influence behavior and over time expectations become reality
Self-fulfilling prophecy
61
Declining quality of decisions as individuals experience mental exhaustion from making numerous choices, leading to a potential increase in impulsive or suboptimal decision-making.
Decision fatigue
62
identify the problem or decision
generating alternatives
evaluating alternatives
selecting the best alternative
implementing the decision
monitoring and evaluating the outcome
Rational/Classic Decision Making Model
63
Acknowledges the limitations individuals face in decision-making due to time and cognitive constraints. It proposes that, instead of seeking the optimal solution, decision-makers settle for satisfactory choices based on simplified heuristics and adaptability to changing circumstances.
Bounded rationality/satisficing model
64
Relying on gut feelings, instincts, or implicit knowledge to make judgments and choices, often without a conscious and analytical evaluation of alternatives. It contrasts with more deliberate and systematic decision-making approaches, emphasizing quick and instinctive responses based on experience and intuition.
Intuition Model
65
self-actualization
esteem
love and belonging
safety needs
physiological needs
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory
66
Divides workplace factors into hygiene (maintenance) and motivator (satisfier) factors. Hygiene factors prevent dissatisfaction but don't motivate, while motivators lead to job satisfaction and increased performance. Addressing both is crucial for creating a motivated and satisfied workforce.
Hertzberg's Two-Factor Theory
67
Need for achievement- drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed
Need for power- need to make others behave in a way they would not have behaved otherwise
Need for affiliation- desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
McClelland's Theory
68
Individuals assess the fairness of their outcomes in relation to their inputs and compare this ratio to that of others. Perceived inequity can lead to feelings of discomfort and may prompt individuals to adjust their efforts or perceptions to restore a sense of fairness in a social or work context
Equity Theory
69
Fair allocation of resources or outcomes in a way that is perceived as equitable among individuals or groups
Distributive Theory
70
The perceived fairness of decision-making processes, including transparency and participation, influences individuals' judgments of justice.
The quality of interpersonal treatment and communication during decision-making significantly impacts perceptions of fairness in organizational settings.
Procedural and Interactional Justice Theory
71
a tendency to act in a certain way depends on an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual
Expectancy Theory
72
Proposes that setting specific and challenging goals can enhance individual and group performance, leading to increased motivation and improved task accomplishment.
Goal Setting Theory
73
Suggests that individuals are likely to repeat behaviors that are followed by positive consequences (rewards) and avoid those associated with negative consequences (punishments)
Reinforcement Theory
74
administering a positive consequence following a desired behavior to strengthen the behavior
Positive reinforcement
75
removing an undesirable consequence when behavior improves to encourage or strengthen the desired behavior
Negative reinforcement
76
administering and aversive consequence to decrease the likelihood of the behavior
Punishment
77
withholding or failing to provide a positive consequence to decrease the likelihood of the behavior
Extinction
78
HBR Article "The power of small wins"
79
Process by which on screens, selects, organizes and interprets stimuli to give them meaning
making sense out of the environment
Perception
80
the tendency for a general impression or single trait to influence one's evaluation of the person's other traits
Halo effect
81
our perceptions of people are influenced by other persons we have recently encountered
Contrast effect
82
making a judgement based on first impression
Primacy effect (first impression bias)
83
most recent information recalled and weighted more heavily
Recency effect
84
judging someone based on our perception of the group to which he or she belongs
Stereotyping
85
Fixating on initial information as a starting point and failing to adequately adjust for subsequent information
Anchoring bias
86
seeking out information that reaffirms past choices and discount information that contradicts past judgements
Confirmation bias
87
tendency for people to base judgements on information that is readily available
Availability bias
88
staying with a course of action even when there is clear evidence that its wrong
Escalation of Commitment (sunk-cost bias)
89
overestimating your ability to be correct
Overconfidence bias
90
anchoring bias
confirmation bias
availability bias
escalation of commitment (sunk-cost) bias
overconfidence
randomness error
risk aversion
hindsight bias
Biases and errors in decision making
91
Our tendency to believe we can predict the outcome of random events
Randomness error
92
the tendency to believe falsely that one has accurately predicted the outcome of an event, after that outcome is actually known
Hindsight bias
93
Organizational Behavior
A field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within organizations for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organization's effectiveness; what people do in organizational settings and how it affects organizational performance
94
Basic OB Model
Inputs --> Processes --> Outcomes
95
Independent Variable
Predictor; presumed to influence the dependent variable; expected to account for (or cause) the dependent variable
96
Dependent Variable
Criterion; an outcome or something affected by the independent variable; the variable to be explained
97
Moderators
A contingency or "it depends on" variable; a variable that causes the relationship between the independent and dependent variables to vary
Ex: relationship between pay and job satisfaction DEPENDS ON one's perceived career opportunities
98
Reliability
Consistency of measurement; a test is reliable if it gives the same results when repeated
Ex: test-retest
99
Internal Validity
Can we trust the conclusions from the research? Does it measure what it claims to be measuring? What is the strength of the relationship between the study variables? Can we be sure the independent variable caused the effect we observed?
100
Generalizability (External Validity)
Are the research conclusions generalizable to other people, situations and time?
101
Lab Studies
More control (internal validity) but less generalizable (external validity)
102
Field Studies
More generalizable (external validity) but less control (internal validity)
103
Correlation
Measure of the degree to which two variables are related
104
Correlation Coefficient
Measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables
Ranges from -1 to +1
Sign (+ or -) indicates direction- positive or negative
Absolute value indicates the strength of the relationship
105
Job Satisfaction
A positive feeling about the job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics
106
Organizational Commitment
A state in which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals
107
Job Involvement
Degree to which people identify with their jobs and see performance as important to their self-worth
108
Perceived Organizational Support (POS)
Degree to which employees believe the organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being
109
Employee Engagement
Degree of enthusiasm for one's job
110
Attitudes
Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events
111
3 Components of an Attitude
Cognitive, Behavioral, Affective
112
Cognitive Component
The opinion or belief segment of an attitude
113
Affective Component
The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude
114
Behavioral Component
An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something
115
Cognitive Dissonance
Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes
116
Job Involvement
The degree to which a person identifies with a job, actively participates in it, and considers performance important to self-worth
117
Psychological Empowerment
Employees' belief in the degree to which they affect their work environment, their competence, the meaningfulness of their job, and the autonomy in their work
118
WSJ "Smile- Your boss is tracking your happiness"
Companies are increasingly prioritizing employee happiness to retain and energize staff. Various methods, from surveys to technology like AI and heart-rate monitors, are used to monitor and enhance employee well-being. However, privacy concerns arise as monitoring becomes more extensive. Striking a balance between using technology for well-being and respecting privacy is a challenge faced by companies. The focus on employee happiness is driven by the belief that happy employees are more productive and contribute to a positive corporate culture.
119
WSJ Article "It's time to get rid of employee surveys"
The use of annual employee surveys is questioned due to low response rates, vague concepts like "engagement," and the lack of meaningful action based on results. Surveys often fail to address big issues or are too lengthy, leading to disengagement from employees. The data obtained may not be anonymous, and companies may not act on the results due to factors like cost or lack of internal interest. The article suggests more efficient alternatives, such as analyzing exit interviews, studying benefits enrollment choices, using focus groups, and leveraging existing data from communication platforms. Pulse surveys with a limited number of questions are proposed for more actionable insights. The article concludes by suggesting that employee surveys, over a century old, should be retired in favor of more contemporary tools and approaches.
120
LI Article "Sorry, workforce engagement isn't the answer and never was"
The article challenges the prevalent concept of employee engagement, arguing that it is often misunderstood and misused. The author suggests that engagement is an outcome of organizational performance, not a cause. Drawing on historical research, the article recommends using engagement as a diagnostic tool rather than a goal, comparing it to monitoring blood pressure for health. The importance of distinguishing between engagement and motivation is emphasized, urging managers to focus on motivation, ability, and employee opportunities for performance improvement. The author calls for a critical evaluation of engagement assessments and demands access to individual data for more effective organizational diagnostics.
121
Emotions
Caused by specific event, very brief in duration (seconds or minutes), specific and numerous in nature, usually accompanies by distinct facial expressions, action-oriented in nature
122
Mood
Cause is often general and unclear, last longer than emotions (hours or days), more general, generally not indicated by distinct expressions, cognitive in nature
123
Affect
Broad range of feelings that people experience, can be experienced in the form of emotions or moods
124
What are the functions of emotions?
communication, team building and collaborations, motivation, decision making
125
Emotional Labor
An employee's expression of organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work
126
Felt Emotions
the individual's actual emotions
127
Displayed Emotions
required/appropriate emotions
128
Surface Acting
Surface acting involves displaying emotions that are not genuinely felt. It is an outward expression of emotions that are expected or required by the job, regardless of the individual's true emotional state.
129
Deep Acting
Deep acting, on the other hand, involves making a conscious effort to align one's inner feelings with the required emotional display. It goes beyond the surface and aims to genuinely experience the expected emotions.
130
Affective Events Theory
suggests employees act emotionally to things that happen to them at work which influences job performance and satisfaction; work events trigger positive or negative emotional reactions to which employees' personalities and moods predispose them to respond with greater or lesser intensity
131
Emotional Intelligence (3 Components)
perceive emotions in the self and others
understand the meaning of these emotions
regulate/manage one's emotions
132
Personality
the way in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others
133
What determines the type of personality we have? (nature vs. nurture)
personality research says change in major traits occurs naturally
134
How is personality measured?
self-report personality inventories- MBTI, CPI, NEO-PI-R, HEXACO
observer ratings- co-worker, manager, recruiter perceptions
projective tests- rorschach (ink blot test)
135
MBTI Dimensions
extroversion vs. introversion
sensing vs. intuition
thinking vs. feeling
judging vs. perceiving
136
Big 5
Extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, openness to experience
137
Dark Triad
Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy
138
Weaknesses of MBTI
139
Situational Strength Theory
the way personality translates into behavior depends on the strength of the situation
strong situations (ex. military) suggest the right or correct behavior and discourage wrong behaviors... personality does not have much of an effect
in weak situations, anything goes and personality is more likely to influence your behavior
140
Trait Activation Theory
some situations or events "activate" or trigger a trait more than others
using this theory, we can predict which jobs will suit certain personality
141
Person-Organization
Argues that people are attracted to and selected by organizations that match their values
142
Person-Job
A theory that identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover
143
WSJ "You can change your personality? Start small"
144
WSJ "Today's personality tests raise the bar for job seekers"
145
Social Information Processing Model
Stage 1- selective attention/comprehension
Stage 2- encoding and simplification
Stage 3- storage and retention
Stage 4- retrieval and response
146
Factors that influence perception
Factors in the situation
- time
- work setting
- social setting
Factors in the perceiver
- attitudes
- motives
- interests
- experience
- expectations
Factors in the target
- novelty
- motion
- sounds
- size
- background
- proximity
- similarity
147
General issue- how good are we at accurately processing and storing information
148
Attribution Theory- process and why it may result in faulty decision making
Suggests that when we observe an individual's behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused
149
Kelley's Model of Attribution: Consensus, Consistency, & Distinctiveness
distinctiveness- whether an individual displays different behaviors in different situations
consensus- whether other people facing a similar situation respond the same way
consistency- does the person respond the same way across time
150
Perceptual Biases & Errors
fundamental attribution error
self-serving bias
selective perception
151
How to reduce the effects of errors and biases
focus on goals
don't try to create meaning out of random events
look for information that disconfirms your beliefs
use WRAP method
Wider set of options
Reality-test assumptions
Attain some distance
Prepare to be wrong
Implications for managers-
Behavior follows perception, so to influence behavior at work,
assess how people perceive their work, their work context, the
behavior of others, and the organization. Often behaviors we find
puzzling can be explained by understanding the initiating
perceptions
152
Self-fulfilling prophecy
expectations influence behavior and over time expectations become reality
153
Decision fatigue
154
Rational/Classic Decision Making Model
155
Bounded rationality/satisficing model
156
Intuition Model
157
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory
158
Hertzberg's Two-Factor Theory
159
McClelland's Theory
Need for achievement- drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed
Need for power- need to make others behave in a way they would not have behaved otherwise
Need for affiliation- desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
160
Equity Theory
161
Distributive Theory
162
Procedural and Interactional Justice Theory
163
Expectancy Theory
a tendency to act in a certain way depends on an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual
164
Goal Setting Theory
165
Reinforcement Theory
166
Positive reinforcement
administering a positive consequence following a desired behavior to strengthen the behavior
167
Negative reinforcement
removing an undesirable consequence when behavior improves to encourage or strengthen the desired behavior
168
Punishment
administering and aversive consequence to decrease the likelihood of the behavior
169
Extinction
withholding or failing to provide a positive consequence to decrease the likelihood of the behavior
170
HBR Article "The power of small wins"
171
Perception
Process by which on screens, selects, organizes and interprets stimuli to give them meaning
making sense out of the environment
172
Halo effect
the tendency for a general impression or single trait to influence one's evaluation of the person's other traits
173
Contrast effect
our perceptions of people are influenced by other persons we have recently encountered
174
Primacy effect (first impression bias)
making a judgement based on first impression
175
Recency effect
most recent information recalled and weighted more heavily
176
Stereotyping
judging someone based on our perception of the group to which he or she belongs
177
Anchoring bias
Fixating on initial information as a starting point and failing to adequately adjust for subsequent information
178
Confirmation bias
seeking out information that reaffirms past choices and discount information that contradicts past judgements
179
Availability bias
tendency for people to base judgements on information that is readily available
180
Escalation of Commitment (sunk-cost bias)
staying with a course of action even when there is clear evidence that its wrong
181
Overconfidence bias
overestimating your ability to be correct
182
Biases and errors in decision making
anchoring bias
confirmation bias
availability bias
escalation of commitment (sunk-cost) bias
overconfidence
randomness error
risk aversion
hindsight bias
183
Randomness error
Our tendency to believe we can predict the outcome of random events
184
Hindsight bias
the tendency to believe falsely that one has accurately predicted the outcome of an event, after that outcome is actually known
