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Comparative > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Monophyletic group

A

A clade, all organisms in a lineage plus the ancestor they have in common, therefore a natural group
can be separated from root with single cut and includes ancestral taxon and all of its descendants

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2
Q

paraphyletic group

A

an incomplete clade resulting from removal of one or more component lineages. clade originating from a single common ancestor but does not contain all descendants from this ancestor

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2
Q

polyphyletic group

A

an artificial group characterized by features that are not homologous. organisms that are grouped together despite not being closely related, often include organisms that have similar traits or appearances but do not share an evolutionary history

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3
Q

Taphonomy

A

the study of how organisms decay and become fossils

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4
Q

absolute (radiometric) dating

A

Where radioactive isotopes decay at a constant rate (half life) comparison of relative amounts of parent and daughter isotopes in igneous rocks ex) argon accumulates from decay of potassium

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5
Q

Relative (stratigraphic dating)

A

uses stratigraphy and law of superposition, stratigraphy is the branch of geology that studies the succession of rock layers (strata) as well as the origin, composition, and distribution of these geological strata

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6
Q

index fossil

A

hard bodied fossils that we know are constrained to a particular time horizon

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7
Q

taxonomy

A

principles and practice of naming organisms and groups of organisms

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8
Q

classification

A

principles and practice of ordering diversity for information storage and retrieval

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9
Q

Law of Superposition

A

in undeformed strata, the oldest rocks will be at the bottom and the youngest at the top, used to reconstruct chronology of events one location at a time

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10
Q

principle of fossil correlation

A

biostratigraphy, similar assemblages of fossils assumed to be the same age, therefore, the rock layers in which they are deposited must also be the same age. Uses index fossils

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11
Q

How does Linnaean classification work?

A

Animal taxonomy, binomial system of biological nomenclature, hierarchy is nested, based on similarities in obvious physical traits, puts groups in taxa (a group of organisms that are classified as a unit, subjective, relies on physical traits, ranks are not meaningful

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12
Q

How do we write Linnean classification

A

Homo sapiens (itallicized)
Homo->genus
sapiens-> species

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13
Q

order of geologic periods

A

cambrian->ordovician->silurian->devonian-> carboniferous-> permian-> MESOZOIC ERA (triassic, jurassic, crestaceous)-> CENOZOIC ERA

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14
Q

cambrian period

A

warm, lots of water, oxygen=large multicellular life, cambrian explosion

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15
Q

ordovician period

A

very high sea level, cold at end, mass extinction at end, vertebrates with bony skeletons

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16
Q

silurian period

A

first terrestrial ecosystems (swamps with plants, arthropods) lots of mountain building, fish, reefs

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17
Q

Devonian period

A

shallow tropical habitat, continents start to converge, ends with mass extinction (40%), many fish groups diversify (tetrapods), trees originate and begin to diversify

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18
Q

Carboniferous period

A

lots of trees (creates massive coal deposits) swampy and lots of early tetrapods diversify

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19
Q

permian period

A

large early tetrapods, amphibious, split between amphibians and amniotes (amniotes further diverge into reptiles and synapsids)

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20
Q

Mesozoic Era

A

Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous periods
pangea breaks up, high sea level by cretaceous and very warm, mass extinction at end of cretaceous, new groups cynodonts (early mammal relatives), mammals, lepidosaurs, archosaurs

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21
Q

Cenozoic Era

A

Eocene epoch to present
diversification of modern groups, tetonic movement created land bridges, ocean circulation patterns, in Pleistocene period there were megafuna (which then went extinct)

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22
Q

Geologic periods anagram

A

Can Oprah Sell Dented Cars Please Mom Check
cambrian, ordovician, silurian, devonian, carboniferous, permian, mesozic, cenozoic

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23
Q

How does radiometric dating work

A

radioactive isotopes decay at a constant rate (half life) comparison of relative amounts of parent and daughter isotopes in igneous rocks (formed by crystallization at higher temps) comparison to known have live to establish absolute ages of rock formation
ex)argon is a chemically unreactive gas, rocks form without argon content, argon contant accumulates overtime with the decay of potassium, measure ratio K:Ar and use half life to date

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24
Q

How do we use synapomorphies and plesiomorphies to refer to characters on a cladogram

A

Synapomorphies: a shared derived characteristic that unites two or more taxa into a monophyletic group, phylogenies are inferred using synapomorphies
Plesiomorphies: an apomorphy of a more inclusive hierarchal level than those being considered. an ancestral or primitive characteristic
* a synapomorphy is a recent shared trait, a pleisiomorphy is more ancestral trait

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25
Q

Crown group

A

a clade that contains all living members of a group adn any fossils within it

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26
Q

stem group

A

extinct taxa that are more closely related to the crown group than any other group, but fall outside of it

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27
Q

Total Group

A

the group including both stem and crown group

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28
Q

what are some characteristics that make an animal more likely to fossilize?

A

species with hard parts and living near water are most likely to fossilize (bones and teeth, aquatic organisms) soft tissues only preserved under exceptional circumstances such as rapid burial, fine grained sediments, and anoxic conditions

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29
Q

What processes of taphonomy is fossilization working against

A

Taphonomy is the study of how decay and tissue disintegration affect fossilization. fossilization has to happen because of rapid burial, freezing, embedding in amber, and desiccation (all of these protect from decay, weathering, scavenging).

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30
Q

Discuss the difference between homology and analogy, give an example of each

A

homology: two or more features that share a common ancestor
analogy: features with similar functions but no common ancestor, evidence of convergent evolution (distantly related organisms independently evolve similar traits to adapt to similar necessities)
An example of an

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31
Q

What are the different parts of a cladogram? What relationship tells you how closely two taxa related to one another?

A

root (start of tree) nodes(where two branches split off) tips (top of tree) branches (each split group) just look at picture phylogenetic trees are built using characters (genes, development, behavior) and can show us how closely related two taxa are. The most closely related taxa are known as sister taxa

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32
Q

Describe the major innovations that characterize vertebrates. What were the anatomical changes and why were they beneficial?

A

A cranium is present- skeletal container and support for brain and sensory capsules this houses and protects the brain and neural crest cells migrate from CNS and give craniofacial skeleton, brain with tripartite organization (forms distinct brain which includes forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain), vertebral elements surrounded the notochord (separated by intervertebral disks, neural and hemal arches, centrum replaces notochord)

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33
Q

What are neural crest cells and why are these cells so important to vertebrates?

A

Neural crest cells migrate down the head and trunk in streams from the central nervous system,
and give rise to most of the craniofacial skeleton in
vertebrates, also pigment cells, parts of nervous system. These cells are so important because they readily proliferate and migrate to give rise to a diverse variety of craniofacial structures

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34
Q

What are major character transformations that occured during the transition from fishes to tetrapods? How were they useful for adapting to a terrestrial lifestyle

A

skull changes (pectoral girdle disconnects from skull to form neck which gives more movement, rounded head becomes flatter head which allows for better sight out of water, loss of opercular and temporal skull bones) pelvic girdle forms (specialzed sacral vertebrae to connect hind limbs) and fins become limbs with digits (7-8) instead of fin rays. Also, lungs become more developed to breathe air and scales are reduced or absent

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35
Q

Embryonic germ layers

A

ectoderm (outer), endoderm (inner), mesoderm (middle)

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36
Q

Ectoderm

A

gives rise to cells that become the CNS, PNS, sensory organs, epidermis, hair, and nails

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37
Q

Endoderm

A

gives rise to mucous membrane lining digestive and respiratory tracts, digestive glands, other things

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38
Q

mesoderm

A

becomes gelatinous tissue called mesenchyme, gives rise to cartilage, bone, blood, muscles, connective tissue, heart, blood vessel, and kidney

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39
Q

what are the differences between protostomes and deuterostomes

A

Protostomes: spiral cleavage, blastopore forms mouth, mesoderm splits to form coelom

Deuterostomes: Radial cleavage, blastopore forms anus, coelom forms from gut outpocket

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40
Q

What are the major chordate synapomorphies and which are present in each group of protochordates we talked about

A

the 5 chordate characters are pharyngeal slits, notochord, nerve chord, endostyle and post anal tail
hemichordates have pharyngeal slits and a nerve chord
cephalochordates and urochordates have all 5
Urochordates are sister group to vertebrates

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41
Q

Jawless fishes -> gnathostomes

A

Jaws, paired pectoral and
pelvic fins, segmented
pharyngeal arches, paired
nasal openings

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42
Q

Actinopteygians (ray fins) vs sarcopterygians (lobe fins)

A

Musculature on body wall vs
fin, shoulder girdle connects
to many rays (radials and
lepidotrichia) vs to single basal
element

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43
Q

actinopterygians-> teolosts

A

Homocercal tail, circular scales
without ganoine, kinetic skull

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44
Q

Early amphibians -> amniotes

A

Egg with amniotic membrane, specialized
ankle bone (astragalus)

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45
Q

Dinosaurs -> birds

A

Character transformations leading to birds: feathers further developed for flight, hollow bones, fused clavicles (furcula = wishbone)

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46
Q

Characters present only in birds

A

pygostyle, synsacrum, carina/keel for flight
muscle attachment (lots of fusions)

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47
Q

amniotes->mammals

A

Sprawling to upright posture, jaw bones
move to ear, hair and milk glands

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48
Q

Hemichordates

A

share deuterostome pattern of cleavage and coelom formation, have pharyngeal slits and a nerve chord, terminal anus, three part body plan, enteropneusts and pterobranchs

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49
Q

Cephalochordates

A

rate marine environments Dorsoventrally inverted compared to hemichordates Characters: pharyngeal slits, hollow nerve chord, notochord,
postanal tail Relatively simple anatomy - headless wonder?
suspension feeders with oral hood and cirri, closed circulation but no heart just contractile vessels

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50
Q

urochordates

A

Have all five chordate characters: pharyngeal slits,
notochord (hollow), endostyle, hollow nerve cord, postanal
tail
* Have flexible outer body cover, a tunic and branchial basket
for filter feeding
* All species are marine
* Ascidians = swimming larvae, sessile adults
* Larvacians and thaliaceans = permanently pelagic

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51
Q

Notochord

A

Mesodermal
Rigid but flexible rod of cells and fluid, encased in a fibrous
sheath
Allows lateral flexion but prevents collapse during
locomotion
Ventral to nerve chord; dorsal to body cavity

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52
Q

pharyngeal slits

A

endodermal
* Pouches in the anterior end of the gut (pharynx)
* Mucus production
* Supported by a basket or other skeletal apparatus
* Functions in respiration and feeding

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53
Q

endostyle/thyroid gland

A

endoderm
* Likely homologous structures between chordates and
vertebrates
* Endostyle - glandular groove in floor of pharynx
* Involved in filter feeding
* Thyroid gland – endocrine gland that produces hormones
* Arises embryologically from groove in pharynx
* Both involved in iodine metabolism
* Example: lamprey with endostyle in juvenile and thyroid in
adult

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54
Q

Nerve cord

A

ectoderm
* Formed from folding/invagination of the neural plate
* Dorsal to the gut and notochord
* Hollow throughout its length

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55
Q

Postanal tail

A

ectoderm and mesoderm
Body extension beyond the level of the anus/posterior limit
of the gut
* Includes muscles, skeleton, notochord
* Functions in aiding locomotion

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56
Q

proboscis

A

found in enteropneusts, fleshy structure protruding anterodorsally over the dorsal surface of the snout in front of the nostrils.

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57
Q

Collar

A

found in enteropneusts (acorn worms), short fleshy collar that is used to bury in mud

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58
Q

Trunk

A

the body without the limbs

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59
Q

Oral/buccal cirri

A

feeding structures found in the oral hood of primitive jawless organisms called amphioxus
the first filter during feeding by eliminating unwanted large or noxious particulate

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60
Q

Tunic

A

firm but flexible body covering of tunicate

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61
Q

branchial/pharyngeal basket

A

the cartilaginous structure supporting the gills in protochordates and lower vertebrates plays an important role in food chewing, processing, and transport. found in urochordates and cephalochordates

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62
Q

Cranium

A

Structure made of bone and/or cartilage that houses and protects the brain, vertebrate innovation

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63
Q

Tripartite brain

A

vertebrate innovation
neural tube enlarged to form distinct brain (forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain)

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64
Q

Vertebral column

A

vertebrate innovation
Skeletal elements that surround
notochord
* Separated by intervertebral discs
or fibrous rings
* Neural and hemal arches
* Can include centrum that replaces
notochord
* Notochord reduced to
intervertebral space – nucleus
pulposus

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65
Q

Ostracoderms

A

Fossil jawless fishes
Bony shields, complex eye muscles, lateral line system
first appearance of paired fins with endoskeleton

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66
Q

Placoderms

A

fossil ganthostomes, encased in dermal armor, jaws with gnathal plates

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67
Q

pelvic claspers

A

elongated modifications of the pelvic fins, allows for facilitation of sperm transfer, originates as a chondrichthyan character

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68
Q

acanthostega and ichthyostega

A

Oldest known tetrapods: many digits,
sensory canals on skull, rudimentary
sacrum, notochord present in adult part of labyrinthodonts

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69
Q

Describe the different categories of skull fenestration, and the major groups they are found in

A

Diapsids – two skull fenestrae
* Early reptile relatives, Lepidosaurs (modern reptiles), Archosaurs (crocodiles & birds), and Turtles
* Synapsids – a single skull fenestra
Early mammal relatives, Modern mammals (Monotremes, Marsupials, Placentals)

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70
Q

turtles

A

Phylogenetic position uncertain, Ribs and bony scutes modified into dorsal carapace and ventral plastron, Pleurodires (lateral neck flexion) vs cryptodires (vertical neck retraction

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71
Q

Archosaur

A

Crocodiles + birds and all their ancestors, Includes dinosaurs, pterosaurs, other extinct groups

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72
Q

Monotremes

A

egg laying, platypus and echidna

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73
Q

Marsupials

A

pouch to house altricial young, lots of convergence with eutherians

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74
Q

Eutharians

A

placenta (most mammals)

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75
Q

rhynchoecephalians (tuatara)

A

lepidosaurs that ARENT squamates
transverse cloacal slit, paired hemipenes, intravertebral divisions for tail autonomy

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76
Q

skeletal muscular tissue

A

Contains multiple nuclei, Striations — alternating dark and light
bands, Voluntary — under conscious control

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77
Q

Cardiac muscle

A

limited to the heart wall
Short and branched with one centrally located nucleus, Intercalated discs join cardiomyocytes end
to end to provide electrical and
mechanical connection, Striated and involuntary

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78
Q

Smooth muscle

A

fusiform cells lacking striations, Cells are shorter and have one nucleus, Involuntary, Most is visceral muscle — walls of hollow
organ

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79
Q

Epithelia cells

A

sheets of closely adhering cells, one+ cells thick, Covers body surfaces and lines body cavities, Upper surface usually exposed to the environment or an internal space in the body, Avascular (does not have blood vessels), Epithelial cells are very close together; have a high rate of mitosis

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80
Q

simple epithelia

A

contain one layer of cells, all cells touch the basement membrane

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81
Q

stratified epithelia

A

contain more than one layer, named by shape of cells, some cells rest on top of others and do not touch basement membrane

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82
Q

simple squamous

A

simple epithelia, thin, scaly cells

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83
Q

simple cuboidal

A

simple epithelia, square/round cells

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84
Q

simple columnar

A

simple epithelia, tall, narrow cells

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85
Q

pseudostratified cilliated columnar

A

simple epithelia, every cell reaches the basement membrane (but not all cells reach the free surface)

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86
Q

keratinized stratified squamous

A

stratified epithelia, think callouses

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87
Q

non keratinized stratified squamous

A

stratified epithelia, eyes, lips, vagina

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88
Q

stratified cuboidal

A

stratified epithelia, cube shaped

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89
Q

urothelium/transitional

A

stratified epithelia, stomach lining

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90
Q

Connective tissue

A

Most have lots of
extracellular matrix (ECM)
(adipose is exception)
* General: consist of
fibroblasts
* Loose – mesenchyme,
adipose, areolar
* Fibrous – dense regular and
irregular
* Special : cartilage, bone,
blood, lymph

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91
Q

Areolar

A

loose connective tissue
loosely organized
fibers, abundant blood
vessels, and a lot of
seemingly empty space
* Fibers run in random
directions; mostly collagenous,
but elastic and reticular also
present
* Nearly every epithelium rests
on areolar tissue

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92
Q

reticular

A

loose connective tissue
mesh of reticular
fibers and fibroblasts
* Forms supportive stroma
(framework) for lymphatic
organs
* Found in lymph nodes, spleen,
thymus, and bone marrow

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93
Q

dense fibrous regular

A

connective tissue
densely packed,
parallel collagen fibers
* Compressed fibroblast
nuclei
* Elastic tissue forms wavy
sheets

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94
Q

dense irregular tissue

A

connective tissue
randomly arranged
collagen fibers and few
visible cells
* Withstands unpredictable
stresses
* In deeper layers of skin,
capsules around organs

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95
Q

adipose tissue

A

connective tissue (fat)
Tissue in which adipocytes are the dominant cell type
Fat is the body’s primary energy reservoir (triglyceride, recycled continuously)
White – main type, provides thermal insulation and cushions organs
Brown – in fetuses, infants, and children only; functions to generate heat

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96
Q

cartilage

A

connective tissue
chondroblasts produce matrice, chondrocytes are trapped cells, perricardium is dense irregular connective tissue surrounding elastic and hyaline cartilage

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97
Q

bone

A

osseous connective tissue
Bone cells: osteoblasts – build new bone, osteoclasts – remove existing bone,osteocytes – maintain bone
Also endochondral (preformed in
cartilage) vs intramembranous
(direct ossification)

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98
Q

spongey bone

A

porous appearance
* Delicate struts of bone:
trabeculae
* Found in heads of long bones
and middle of flat bones

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99
Q

lamellar bone

A

bone is deposited in
layers
* Typically slow-growing
* LAGs = lines of arrested growth

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100
Q

compact bone

A

denser, calcified
tissue with no visible spaces
* Found in shafts of long bones
(called cortical bone) and in
outer edges of flat bones

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101
Q

Non lamellar bone

A

collagen fibers
arranged irregularly in bone matrix
* Typically fast-growing

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102
Q

haversian bone

A

subtype of lamellar
* Arranged in cylinders that surround central canal
= osteons
* Blood vessels and nerves travel through central
canal, bone matrix is deposited in concentric rings

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103
Q

Hyaline cartilage

A

most common, not much collagen found in joins, respiratory tract, immature skeleton

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104
Q

fibrocartilage

A

reinforced with collagen fibers, exposed to tensile forces found in intervertebral discs, pubic sympysis, acetabular , foot and ankle

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105
Q

elastic cartilage

A

flexible, elastic fibers in matrix, ear larynx and epiglottis

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106
Q

neuroglia

A

glial cells, protect and assist neurons “housekeepers” of the nervous system

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107
Q

neurons

A

nerve cells, detect stimuli, respond quickly, and transmit coded
information rapidly to other cells

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108
Q

Neurosoma

A

part of neuron, cell body, houses
nucleus and other organelles;
controls protein synthesis

109
Q

dendrites

A

part of neuron, short, branched
processes that receive signals from
other cells and transmit messages to the neurosoma

110
Q

axon

A

part of neuron, nerve fiber, sends outgoing
signals to other cells;

111
Q

epidermis

A

part of integument, ectoderm, Forms mucus in many vertebrates
* Stratum corneum for desiccation
protection
* Keratinized layer of dead cells

112
Q

basement membranes

A

part of integument, ectoderm Layer between an epithelium and
underlying connective tissue

113
Q

dermis

A

part of integument, Produces dermal bone w/ no cartilage precursor, Contains fibrous connective tissue and collagen, also contains pigment cells,Thicker than epidermis (usually), mesoderm

114
Q

dermal scales

A

If scales are mostly formed from dermis (esp. ossified
dermal bone), fish scales

115
Q

epidermal scales

A

Epidermal folds, esp. with thick keratin layer, lizard and bird scales

116
Q

femoral glands

A

inside thighs of lizards, release pheromones

117
Q

uropygial gland

A

birds, base of tail, secretes lipid and protein for preen

118
Q

salt gland

A

birds, on the head, excretes excess salt from diet

119
Q

sebaceous gland

A

mammals, oily secretion called sebum, globular in shape, Associated often with hair, but also other body parts, Outer ear canal, Meibomian glands of eyelid

120
Q

eccrine gland

A

mammals, long, coiled invaginations of epidermis, produce thin and watery fluids On soles of feet, prehensile tails, areas that contact abrasive surfaces

121
Q

apocrine gland

A

mammals, sweat, produce viscous,
lipid-like fluid at hair follicles
* Chemical signaling - scent
* Evaporation dissipates heat
* Example – mammary glands

122
Q

Cosmoid

A

scales thick layer of dentin
beneath a layer of enamel
* Australian lungfish

123
Q

Ganoid

A

shiny, overlapping,
interlocking with surface enamel
layer. No dentin
* Gars

124
Q

Teleost scales

A

lack enamel, dentin,
and vascular bone layer. Retain
lamellar bone
* Cycloid – concentric rings (circuli)
* Ctenoid –margin has jagged edge
* New circuli are deposited as fish grows
(like tree rings), can be used to age fish

125
Q

fish glands

A

Unicellular glands
Single specialized and interspersed (club
cell, goblet cell, sacciform cell)
* Thread cells of hagfish

126
Q

Amphibians

A

Mucus glands - small clusters of cells -> one duct, Poison glands – larger and contain stored secretions

127
Q

Reptile glands

A

femoral glands and scent gland in crocodiles and turtles (open into cloaca and/or mouth

128
Q

bird glands

A

femoral, scent, uropygial, salt

129
Q

mammal glands

A

sebaceous, eccrine, apocrine (mammary)

130
Q

Feather structures

A

rachis (middle stalk)
vane (main feather soft part), Spathe (vane+rachis) Barb (each individual piece of feathery part), barbule (smaller fluffy pieces off each feather, interlocking detail), calamus (quill/base)

131
Q

Flight feathers

A

Asymmetrical vanes
* On wings = remiges, on
tail = rectrices

132
Q

Contour feathers

A

Symmetrical, aka
pennaceous, small feathers which form outline of bird’s plumage

133
Q

Down feathers

A

Aka plumulaceous, lack a
rachis, lots of fluffy barbs

134
Q

filoplume

A

specialized feathers for display

135
Q

dermal papilla

A

zone of proliferation, invaginates to form follicle
* Shh (sonic hedgehog) and BMP2 (bone morphogenetic protein 2) are turned
on in feather buds and direct development of barbs as epidermal ridges

136
Q

feather follicles

A

develop embryologically, cells proliferate at base, protective sheath shields feather, successive pulp caps protect dermis, spathe slowly unfurls

137
Q

placoid scales

A

no dermal bone, but enamel and dentin present (feel rough to touch) develop in dermis, project through epidermis to surface

138
Q

Nuptial pads

A

on amphibians/frogs, found on digits or limbs, raised calluses of cornified epidermis that help male hold female

139
Q

What are some examples of bony exoskeletons in tetrapods

A

armadillos/alligators have dermal amour made of dermal bone

140
Q

arrector pili

A

muscle causes hairs to stand on end

141
Q

nails

A

keratin plates to protect fingers
and toes (primates only)

142
Q

Claws/talons

A

curved and laterally
compressed projections from tips of digits

143
Q

Hooves

A

enlarged keratin plates on tips
of ungulate digits

144
Q

Baleen

A

Keratinized plates originating
from dermal papillae
* Papillae extend and take
epidermis with them
* Epidermis forms cornified layer
of keratin

145
Q

Melanophores

A

contain melanin, Melanosomes in cell house melanin
granules, Dermal – broad, flat cells that change color rapidly, only in ectotherms, Epidermal – thin, elongate cells prominent in endotherms – gives color to
hair and feathers

146
Q

iridophore

A

contains light-reflecting,
crystalline guanine platelets – mostly
in ectotherms

147
Q

Xanthophore

A

yellow pigments

148
Q

Erythrophore

A

red pigments

149
Q

How to vertebrates use melanophores to change their color?

A

Darker skin - Melanocytes produce greater quantities of melanin, Melanin breaks down more slowly, melanin granules more spread out in keratinocytes -> melanized cells seen throughout the epidermis
Lighter skin - melanin
clumped near keratinocyte
nucleus
* Little melanin seen
beyond stratum basale;
what is there breaks down
quickly

150
Q

How is skin color determined in humans (both evolutionary and at a cellular level)

A

Evolutionary: Melanin in skin evolved as an adaptation to high levels of UV radiation, hemoglobin adds pinkish tint to skin
* Melanin blocks Vitamin D absorption
Cellular:UV exposure stimulates melanin secretion and darkens skin
* Color fades as melanin is degraded and old cells are exfoliated

151
Q

Aposematism

A

Colors can warm predators

152
Q

Chondrichthyans

A

no dermatocranium, cartilage braincase, two-point jaw articulation,
spiracle

153
Q

Actinopterygians

A

highly kinetic skulls in teleosts, less so in earlier forms, skull rotates
to open mouth, pharyngeal teeth in many species

154
Q

Sarcopterygians(lungfish)

A

many small dermal bones in fossil, lots of cartilage in living species, tooth plates

155
Q

Sarcopterygians (coelacanth)

A

joint separating skull into two parts

156
Q

Early tetrapods

A

heavy dermal bone nares

157
Q

modern amphibians

A

reduction of dermal bones (orbital series and opercular series)

158
Q

turtles

A

edentulous (no teeth), anapsid (lacks temporal opening)

159
Q

Sphenodon

A

classic diapsid, not much kinesis, tooth specialization

160
Q

Lizards

A

modified diapsid condition, most lizards and snakes have a quadrate with independent rotation known as streptosyly

161
Q

lingual feeding in lizards

A

Hyoid apparatus (ceratohyal, basihyal,
ceratobranchials) has elongated lingual
process (Lp)
* A circular accelerator muscle wraps
around Lp
* Muscle contracts and squeezes the Lp as
it slides down, shoots the tongue out

162
Q

snakes

A

highly kinetic skulls

163
Q

Crocodillians

A

dominated by dermatocranium, secondary palate

164
Q

birds

A

loss of some orbital and temporal bones, endentulous, rotational hinge in beak

165
Q

monotremes

A

no lacrimal bone, edentulous

166
Q

Eutherians/placentals

A

lots of fusions in skull bones, tympanic bulla, secondary palate

166
Q

Enamal

A

hardest substance in the body
Only on crown
Deposited after tooth erupts
Epidermal (ectoderm)

166
Q

Dentin

A

resembles bone but is harder
Distinguished by microscopic channels
Underlies enamel
Forms walls of the pulp cavity
Grows by daily apposition
Neural crest derived

166
Q

Compare and contrast the two hypotheses of the origin of teeth. What does each say and what are the issues with each

A

Outside in: Teeth are derived from the bony scales of primitive fishes
As jaws evolved, scales along the margins moved inside the mouth to form teeth Similar developmental process but no transitional scale fossils have been found
Inside out: Teeth originated in the pharynx (endodermal) and progressed forward in the mouth
Many fish have pharyngeal teeth but there is tooth structures in placoderms which don’t have pharynx

167
Q

Cementum

A

bone-like
Rests upon dentin and grows layers on top of the annuli

168
Q

pulp

A

inner layer of teeth, Supports blood vessels and nerves entering the tooth through the apical foramen.

169
Q

apical foramen

A

tooth’s natural opening, found at the root’s very tip—that is, the root’s apex—whereby an artery, vein, and nerve enter the tooth and commingle with the tooth’s internal soft tissue, called pulp

170
Q

Homodont

A

all teeth are the same

171
Q

Heterodont

A

different tooth shapes in one animal, more common, humans

172
Q

Polyphyodont

A

teeth continuously replaced, ex sharks

173
Q

Diphydont

A

most mammals, teeth replaced once Deciduous/milk teeth are first set, permanent teeth are second set

174
Q

Thecodont

A

deeply sunken into bone sockets (mammals and archosaurs)

175
Q

Acrodont

A

shallow sockets on edge of jaw (snakes)

176
Q

Pleurodont

A

teeth attached to medial side of dentary (lizards)

177
Q

Bunodont

A

rounded peaks, generalized

178
Q

lophodont

A

cusps draw out into ridges (rodents and perissodactyls)

179
Q

selenodont

A

crescent shaped cusps (artiodactyls), deer cows camels hippos

180
Q

Mammal tooth types

A

incisors, canines, premolars, molars can write formula as fractions with top being upper teeth and bottom being lower teeth and then I, C, P, or M

181
Q

Edentulous

A

no teeth at all, turtles birds and whales

182
Q

Describe the difference in development of endochondral bone and intramembranous ossification

A

Intramembranous ossification occurs “within a membrane,” specifically within mesenchyme, which are connective tissue stem cells; mesenchyme is directly replaced with bone tissue. Endochondral ossification occurs inside cartilage; mesenchyme differentiates into cartilage, which is then replaced with bone tissue.

183
Q

what components make up cranial skeleton and what make up post cranial skeleton?

A

Cranial: skull
postcranial: vertebrae, limbs, all parts of skeleton that are not skull

184
Q

Paleostyly

A

Jaw suspension, none of the arches
attach to cranium = agnathan

185
Q

Euatostyly

A

jaw suspension,mandibular arch is
suspended by itself = extinct
placoderms (primitive autostyly)

186
Q

Amphistyly

A

two attachments: an
anterior ligament connecting
palatoquadrate to braincase, and
hyomandibula = early fishes

187
Q

Hyostyly

A

jaw suspension, jaws attached primarily through hyomandibula =
chondrichthyans & actinopterygians

188
Q

Metautostyly

A

jaws are attached
directly through quadrate =
tetrapods, lungfish, holocephalans
(secondary autostyly

189
Q

Craniostyly

A

upper jaw incorporated
into braincase = mammals

190
Q

hyoid arch evolution from fish to tetrapods

A

fish: Hyoid arch consists of hyomandibula and ceratohyal – helps to connect the jaw to the braincase
tetrapods: The hyomandibula separated from the
ceratohyal and was reduced
**The function changes from jaw
suspension to hearing, and the
hyomandibula becomes the stapes
(aka columella) in tetrapods

191
Q

Hyoid arch evolution in mammals

A

The bones of the hyoid arch and lower jaw have been further modified form the bones of the middle ear (quadrate = incus, articular =malleus, hyomandibula = stapes)
* The dentary takes over and becomes the only
lower jaw bone in mammals

192
Q

Synovial joints

A

permits considerable movement
* Capsule with walls of dense fibrous
tissue
* Lined by a membrane that secretes a
lubricant = synovial fluid
* Knee, elbow, jaw etc.
* Most structurally complex type of
joint

193
Q

Synathrosis

A

restricts movement, synotosis (bone fusion), synchondrosis (cartilage, symphyses), syndesmosis (fibrous, sutures)

194
Q

Chondrocranium

A

underlies and
supports the brain, is formed of
endochondral bone and/or
cartilage Four regions: ethmoid (nasal capsules), orbital (eyes), otic
(semicircular canals and inner ear), occipital (posterior brain)

195
Q

Splanchnocranium

A

visceral cranium) – most ancient part, first arose to support pharyngeal slits in protochordates
Mandibular arch (palatoquadrate +
quadrate/epipterygoid + articular in teleosts), Hyoid arch (hyomandibula + ceratohyal + basihyal, sometimes), Branchial (gill) arches

196
Q

Dermatocranium

A

dermal bones
making up the outer casing of the
skull

197
Q

Spiracle

A

reduction of first gill slit, found in chondrichthyans, brings water into gills

198
Q

Metakinesis

A

hinge is at back of skull (lizards)

199
Q

Mesokinesis

A

hinge is behind orbit (burrowers)

200
Q

Prokinesis

A

hinge is in front of orbit (snakes and brids)

201
Q

Streptostyly

A

quadrate with independent rotation, in most lizards and snakes

202
Q

Nuchal crest

A

back of skull on either side for muscle attachments, placental

203
Q

sagittal crest

A

center of skull for muscle attachment, placental

204
Q

Secondary palate

A

Includes hard palate of bone and posterior continuation, a soft palate
Separates food chamber from respiratory chamber
Important for chewing since food stays in mouth for longer
Mastication doesn’t
impede breathing
Precise tooth occlusion= loss of kinesis

205
Q

5 vertebral regions

A

cervical (neck) thoracic (chest) lumbar (no ribs) sacral (pelvic girdle) caudal (tail)

206
Q

Monospondyly

A

one centrum/body segment (cat)

207
Q

diplospondyly

A

two centra/body segment (bowfin)

208
Q

Acoelous

A

cavity, centra with flat ends (mammals)
Receive and distribute compressive forces within the vertebral column

209
Q

Amphicoelus

A

each surface is concave (fish, salamanders)
Limited motion in most directions

210
Q

Procoleus

A

concave anteriorly and convex posteriorly (frogs, some reptiles)

211
Q

Opisthocoelous

A

concave posteriorly and convex anteriorly (gar)

212
Q

Heterocoelous

A

saddle-shaped articular surfaces at both ends (cryptodire turtles and bird cervicals)

213
Q

Intervertebral discs

A

(mammals only): fibrocartilage disc with nucleus pulpous center

214
Q

transverse processes

A

general term for lateral projection from the vertebrae

215
Q

Diapopyses

A

lateral projections of vertebrae for attachment of upper rib head (tuberculum)

216
Q

Parapophyses

A

lateral projections of vertebrae for attachment of lower rib head (capitulum)

217
Q

Basapophyses

A

paired ventrolateral projections that are remnants from the hemal arch bases

218
Q

Zygapophyses

A

articulations between successive vertebrae, divided into pre- and post-

219
Q

True ribs

A

meet ventrally with sternum
Sometimes include vertebral/costal segment and sternal segment

220
Q

False ribs

A

articulate with each other and not sternum

221
Q

Floating ribs

A

false ribs that articulate with nothing

222
Q

Rhachitomous vertebrae

A

centra separated into two parts (in early tetrapods)

223
Q

Gastralia

A

abdominal ribs, posterior to sternum, found in some lizards, crocodilians, Sphenodon

224
Q

Plastron

A

lower ventral part of shell
in turtles – includes clavicles, interclavicle, dermal ventral elements

225
Q

Major variations in vertebrae across vertebrates

A

Early fossil fishes had no centra, just arches
- Lack of centra persists in a handful of living fish groups (jawless fishes, sarcopterygians,
non-teleost actinopterygians like sturgeon)
- Most fish have amphicoelous vertebrae, fused into one unit
- Modern tetrapods – atlas (in all) and axis (in amniotes) – what do they do?
- Snakes – extra articulations (zygosphene and zygantrum)
- Birds have lots of fusion – synsacrum, pygostyle
- Mammals have 7 cervical vertebrae (except for sloths and manatees/dugongs)

226
Q

Heteroceral

A

caudal fin type, vertebral column (VC) turns upward and into dorsal lobe of caudal fin

227
Q

Diphyceral

A

caudal fin type, VC extends straight back, fin is symmetrical around it

228
Q

Homoceral

A

equal lobes and appears symmetrical, but narrow VC slants up to form dorsal edge

229
Q

Stylopod

A

upper arm and thigh

230
Q

zeugopod

A

forearm and shank

231
Q

autopod

A

wrist and digits

232
Q

manus

A

autopos of forelimb

233
Q

pes

A

autopod of hind limb

234
Q

What are the two major hypotheses of paired fin origins, and what do they say? What are the major issues with each?

A

Gill-arch hypothesis: gill rays on posterior gill arch expanded and grew out to give rise to fin, Lots of developmental evidence, Not many living fishes have gill rays (just sharks/skates/rays), What about pelvic fins?
Fin-fold hypothesis: continuous ventrolateral folds grew out and later subdivided to form paired fins
Some fossil fishes show fin flaps
Not much developmental evidence for this, unless median fins are used as a proxy for lateral fin folds

235
Q

How are the pectoral and pelvic fins/girdles different in actinopterygian fishes?

A

**postemporal bone connects girdle to skull which limits movement of head without vertebral movement
**pelvic girdle is not fixed in place in actinopterygians

236
Q

Feathers and hair are both keratin based integumentary structures. How are feather development and hair development similar? different?

A

Hairs originate from epidermal follicles that grow down into the dermis, the middle layer of the skin. Unlike hair, Feathers grow from an outgrowth of the epidermis. Follicles develop as raised papilla filled with dermal cells, feathers remain attached until they are pushed out by new feathers

237
Q

What is a major trend in pectoral girdle arrangement from fish to tetrapods?

A

Paired fins or limbs + girdles (attach them to vertebral column) in fish
Early tetrapods have lost skull articulation and have lost bones connecting girdle to skull

238
Q

What trends in digit morphology can be seen in tetrapods

A

Early tetrapods are polydactyly (more than 5 digits) but then reduced by the time of vertebrates to mostly be pentadactyly (5 digits), ungulates, and 3/4 in birds

239
Q

Ceratotrichia

A

Fin rays in chondrichthyans, cartilage

240
Q

Lepidotrichia

A

fin rays in osteichthyans, bone

241
Q

Pterygiophores

A

part of fin that articulates fin rays to girdle or other part of body (can be median too)
Basals = proximal
Radials = distal

242
Q

Archipterygial

A

axis runs through center fin

243
Q

Metapterygial

A

axis is located posteriorly in fin, most radials project towards preaxial side

244
Q

Aquatic

A

swimming

245
Q

Cursorial

A

running

246
Q

salatorial

A

hopping

247
Q

Aerial/volant

A

flying

248
Q

Arboreal

A

tree dwelling

249
Q

brachiation

A

using arms to swing from tree to tree

250
Q

Scansorial

A

climbing using claws

251
Q

Fossorial

A

burrowing

252
Q

How did limb posture in amphibians vs mammals affect locomotion and transmission of ground forces on skeleton

A

Sprawled posture: lateral undulations of the vertebral columnwith overarm swing
Adductor muscles (which run from girdle to limb) are massive to lift and hold body in pushup position
Upright posture: mammal limbs adducted under their body, increases the ease and efficiency of limb swing during rapid locomotion (like a pendulum)
Dorsoventral instead of lateral undulations
Reduced adductor musculature

253
Q

Unguligrade

A

only hoof touches ground (tip of one or two digits; deer, horses)

254
Q

Digitigrade

A

Only digits bear weight (cats) just phalanges

255
Q

Plantigrade

A

entire sole of foot contacts ground (humans)
ankle bones to toe bones

256
Q

Asymmetrical gait

A

when footfalls are unevenly spaced
cantor: leading and trailing pattern
trot: diagonal limbs are moved together

257
Q

Symmetrical

A

footfalls spaced evenly
pronk: all four feet strike in unison
bound: hindfeet launch and animal lands on forefeet in unison

258
Q

Primary wings

A

attach to manus, provide forward thrust
(more distal attachment)

259
Q

Secondary wings

A

attach to forearm, provide lift (closer to body) passive like airplane

260
Q

what morphological changes are often seen in the limbs of secondarily aquatic tetrapods?

A

Reduction of limbs or modification of limbs into fin-like structures
Webbing
Elongation and thickening of propulsive limbs

261
Q

How do skeletons of running vertebrates change their speed?

A

Stride length, Stride rate, Reduce amount of time limb contacts ground
can lengthen distal limbs, extensive flexion of vertebral column

262
Q

Gliding

A

minimizing drag and using lift

263
Q

Parachuting

A

maximum drag (biggest surface area to slow fall)

264
Q

What are the three hypothesis for origin of flight?

A

arboreal hypothesis (dinos climb in trees and use feathers to parachute which then learn to fly)
Insect-net hypothesis (feathers for capturing prey which then grew and allowed for flight)
Wing assisted incline running (WAIR) birds flap wings while running up trees

265
Q

What adaptions are useful for burrowing/fossoriality?

A

Stout and robust bones
Short forearm and hand, long elbow to maximize mechanical advantage
Mole forelimbs
Heavily fortified skulls

266
Q

How did forces on vertebrae and limbs change with the transition from water to land? How did this affect digit orientation

A

Direction of digits changed to accompany limb position and enable more efficient terrestrial locomotion
Femur/humerus twisted anteriorly
Seen in early tetrapods
this leads to digits shifting form being at side to swinging forward

267
Q

What morphological adaptations are advantageous for quick bursts of speed vs substained running? give an example of a vertebrate that uses teach type of running

A

Crocodiles: run at upright posture because of crurotarsal joint
Cheetas: short speed Extensive flexion of vertebral column increases speed Body mass is displaced vertically, takes a lot of energy (very muscular limbs)
Horses: long speed Less vertebral flexion; keeps mass more linear
Uses much less energy (muscles closer towards body)

Comparative (3 decks)

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