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exam 1 Flashcards

know it all

1
Q

what is theory?

A

an explanation of observed regularities or patterns

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2
Q

what are the components of theory?

A

Definitions, Descriptions, Relational statements

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3
Q

Definitions

A

What are the key terms?

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4
Q

Descriptions

A

What are the characteristics?

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5
Q

Relational statements

A

How are the variables related?

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6
Q

Hypothesis

A

A proposed explanation for a phenomenon, or a conjecture about how certain variables are related

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7
Q

Axiom

A

A statement or proposition we take to be true without needing proof within the context of a particular system of logic or theory

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8
Q

What is epistemological research concerned with?

A

How is knowledge acquired?
What constitutes as knowledge?
How can we distinguish between knowledge and belief

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9
Q

What is ontological research concerned with?

A

What really exists?
Do social phenomena have an objective reality?
Is what passes for objectively real just mentally constructed?

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10
Q

What is objectivism?

A

An ontological perspective that suggests social phenomena have an objective reality outside of our perceptions.

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11
Q

What is constructionism?

A

Hard: reality is a set of mental constructs
Soft: social reality is marred by human interpretations

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12
Q

What is phenomenological research concerned with?

A

Human experiences as they are consciously perceived without any preconceived theoretical interpretations or frameworks

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13
Q

What is positivism?

A

An epistemological approach that follows natural science and uses empiricism to uncover social laws governing reality

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14
Q

How does positivism generate hypotheses?

A

Via deduction. It is scientific, not normative and therefore said hypotheses can be tested empirically and supported or rejected

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15
Q

What does empiricism posit?

A

Knowledge must be based on information gathered through senses

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16
Q

What is interpritivism?

A

An empathetic critique of positivism that views the social world from the POV of the actor

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17
Q

What is the goal of interpretivism?

A

Grasp the subjective meaning of people’s lives

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18
Q

What does interpretivism posit?

A

People interpret the reality of their own lives

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19
Q

What is symbolic interactionism?

A

An interpetivist perspective that focuses on the role of symbols and interactions in shaping identities and behaviours

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20
Q

What is critical theory?

A

-Both deductive and inductive
-Rejects the concept of value-free science
-Praxis: research should revolve around practice
-Political in nature

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21
Q

What are the interpretivist critiques of positivism?

A

-Natural sciences are limited in knowledge production of social world because it is created by individuals
-Uncovering social laws is less important than grasping subjective meaning of people’s lives
-Actions should be viewed from actor POV
-Positivism is not empathetic

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22
Q

What are critical theory critiques of positivism?

A

-Researchers should support those they study rather than attempt to be value neutral
-Knowledge should be used to change social reality, not just understand it
-Social research should be practice oriented

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23
Q

What are the 2 types of relational statements?

A

Deterministic, Probabilistic

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24
Q

What does a deterministic relational statement state?

A

The two variables will always go together in a particular way. “The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it”

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25
Q

What does a probabilistic relational statement state?

A

The two variables will go together with some degree of regularity but the relationship is not inevitable. “The likelihood of rain occurring tomorrow increases when atmospheric humidity levels rise”

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26
Q

What are the 3 types of theory?

A

Descriptive, Predictive, Explanatory

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27
Q

What are the properties of descriptive theory?

A

-Don’t provide explanations/predictions
-Identify patterns
-Provide foundational knowledge to be built upon

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28
Q

What are the properties of predictive theory?

A

-Forecast future outcomes
-Uses empirical data/stats
-Predict trends

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29
Q

What are the properties of explanatory theory?

A

-Explain why certain phenomena occur and how they function
-Examine underlying mechanisms/causes/processes

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30
Q

What are concepts?

A

Ideas/mental representations of points around which social research is conducted

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31
Q

What is conceptualization?

A

Defining abstract concepts in terms that can be measured/observed

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32
Q

What is operationalization?

A

Devising measures of a concept

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33
Q

What are dimensions?

A

Specific aspects or variables that are measured within a particular concept

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34
Q

What are indicators?

A

Representations of a concept
Direct: reported income tax return as an indicator of wealth
Indirect: absenteeism as an indicator of employee morale

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35
Q

What is the nominal definition of a concept?

A

A description that uses words

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36
Q

What is the operational definition of a concept?

A

The spelling out of operations a researcher must conduct to measure a concept

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37
Q

What is the process of inductive research?

A

Gather data and then use said data to formulate theories

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38
Q

What is inductive research?

A

Drawing conclusions about unobserved cases on the basis of observed cases

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39
Q

What is the process of deductive research?

A
  1. Theory
  2. Hypotheses
  3. Data collection
  4. Findings
  5. Hypothesis supported/rejected
  6. Substantiation/revision/rejection
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40
Q

What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative research?

A

Quantitative research seeks to quantify phenomena and establish generalizable patterns, whereas qualitative research aims to uncover nuanced insights and understand the complexities of human behaviour and social phenomena.

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41
Q

What are the differences in measurement between qualitative and quantitative research?

A

Quantitative is mostly deductive (numerical data/stats)
Qualitative data is mostly inductive (interviews/observations)

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42
Q

What are the epistemological and ontological orientations of qualitative and quantitative research?

A

Quant: Positivism (E), Objectivism (O)
Qual: Interpretivism (E), Constructionism (O)

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43
Q

What is a natural experiment?

A

Taking advantage of naturally occurring events to investigate the effects of an intervention

44
Q

What are some characteristics of a natural experiment?

A

-No manipulation of variables
-Lack of overall control
-Pre-existing groups
-Real-world influence
-Value in situations where controlled experiments would be unethical

45
Q

What is a field experiment?

A

A study of behaviour in natural settings

46
Q

What are some characteristics of a field experiment?

A

-Direct intervention in a natural setting
-Manipulation of variables
-High external validity
-Can be generalized to real-world contexts

47
Q

What is a laboratory experiment?

A

A highly controlled experiment in a controlled environment

48
Q

What are some characteristics of a laboratory experiment?

A

-Easy to randomly assign participants to different experimental conditions
-Easier to induce nomothetic causation (IV on DV)
-Low external validity
-True experiment

49
Q

What is characteristic of a true experiment?

A

-Deliberate manipulation of variables
-Controls for extraneous variables
-Systematic comparison of groups with different levels of subjection to variables

50
Q

What is the classical experimental design?

A

-Experimental group
-Control group
-DV measured before and after IV introduction
-Random assignment to ensure equality
-OBServation of dependent variable->EXPerimental treatment (No exp means control group)->Timing of observations made in relation to dependent variable

51
Q

What is a quasi-experiment?

A

An experiment that exhibits characteristics of the experimental model but lacks features that help researchers establish causation
-If an experiment does not exhibit random assignment of groups, for example, it is a quasi-experiment

52
Q

What are the limits of experimental design?

A

-Some variables of interest cannot be subjected to experimental manipulation
-Ethics
-Many phenomena cannot be measured by short-term experiments
-Does not account for perception/emotion

53
Q

Research ethics in quantitative research:

A

-Easier to obtain approval
-Considered more scientific
-Data gathered from individuals one at a time

54
Q

Research ethics in qualitative research:

A

-Intrusive
-May capture data on people who wish not to be observed
-Lack of consent
-Not concerned with reactivity
-Indeterminate methods

55
Q

What are the 3 core principles of research ethics?

A

Respect, Concern for welfare, Justice

56
Q

What are the hallmarks of respect?

A

-Informed consent
-Participants should be advised of risks and benefits

57
Q

What are the hallmarks of concern for welfare?

A

-Avoid harm, embarrassment, inadvertent identification
-Maintain confidentiality

58
Q

What are the hallmarks of justice?

A

-No exploitation
-Burden and benefit should be equally distributed
-Inclusivity

59
Q

What is the random response technique for sensitive topics?

A

-Everybody equipped with a coin
-Heads answer yes, tails tell the truth
-Based on coin outcome, respondents provide their response
-Assumes 50% land on heads, so every % over 50 is multiplied by 2 to give the actual answer for what % is yes

60
Q

What is covert research?

A

Investigations where people are being observed, but have not been informed that they are part of a study

61
Q

What is wrong with covert research?

A

It violates the informed consent policy of respect for others

62
Q

What is characteristic of a middle range theory?

A

-Limited in scope
-Testable

63
Q

What is characteristic of a grand theory?

A

-General/Abstract
-Provide ways to look at the world

64
Q

What is characteristic of grounded theory?

A

-Practice of deriving theories from qualitative data
-Used by qualitative researchers
-Inductive

65
Q

What is validity?

A

Whether an indicator devised to gauge a concept does so accurately

66
Q

What is face validity?

A

A measure appears to reflect the content of a concept in question

67
Q

How can face validity be confirmed?

A

Ask experts in the field whether the measure reflects the concept concerned

68
Q

What is construct validity?

A

Concepts used in research relate to one another in a way that is consistent with what their theories would predict.

69
Q

What is convergent validity?

A

A concept measurement corresponds with a second measure of the same concept that used a different technique

70
Q

What is predictive validity?

A

A measurement instrument can accurately predict outcomes/behaviours in a way that coincides theoretically with the observed construct

71
Q

What is reliability?

A

Consistency of measures, stability over time

72
Q

What is internal reliability?

A

Whether respondents’ scores on one indicator relate to their scores on others

ex: people who agree with right to vote also agree with free speech when measuring liberal democracy

73
Q

What is inter-observer consistency?

A

Results consistent with results of others observing the same thing

74
Q

What is validity?

A

Whether an instrument of measurement is accurately measuring the intended construct

75
Q

What is the difference between reliability and validity?

A

Reliability is concerned with consistency, validity is concerned with accuracy

76
Q

What is internal validity?

A

The extent to which an experiment accurately measures the effects of a variable

77
Q

What is external validity?

A

How applicable an experiment is to the outside world

78
Q

What does the cross-sectional research design look like?

A

Collecting data from a sample of individuals at one point in time to examine variables of interest

79
Q

How is external validity of the cross sectional research design supported?

A

Random sampling

80
Q

What is the longitudinal research design?

A

Cases examined at multiple points in time without manipulation of the IV

81
Q

What is the benefit of the longitudinal design?

A

Examine a group of individuals over a long period of time

82
Q

What is a panel study?

A

A type of longitudinal study where the same group of people is studied over time

83
Q

What is a cohort study?

A

A type of longitudinal study where a group of people who share a common characteristic are studied over time.

84
Q

What is the case study design?

A

Intensive and detailed analysis of one or several cases comparatively

85
Q

What is coding?

A

Categorizing and labelling data to identify themes, patterns, and relationships

86
Q

What is a coding schedule?

A

A table that visually represents code

86
Q

What is a coding manual?

A

Instruction form for coders that includes all possible categories for each dimension to be coded

86
Q

When do we code?

A

Predominantly when qualitative data is involved

86
Q

What is a questionnaire?

A

A structured interview without the interviewer

86
Q

What is the Likert scale?

A

Rate on a scale from 1-5 1 being x and 5 being y

87
Q

What do the columns and rows of a coding schedule entail?

A

Columns: Dimension
Rows: Cases

87
Q

What are some rules for a questionnaire?

A

-Closed questions only
-Questionnaire must be short
-Must be easy to follow
-Must be clear

88
Q

What is an interview schedule?

A

The format that dictates the order of questions in an interview

89
Q

What are some rules of an interview schedule?

A

-Sensitive questions should be placed well into the interview
-The interviewer must know the schedule

90
Q

Nomothetic explanations…

A

Apply to humanity in general, not just study participants

91
Q

What are the requirements of a nomothetic explanation?

A

Correlation: Cause and effect must vary together
Non-spuriousness: Alternative explanations must be ruled out
Time order: Cause must precede effect

92
Q

Idiographic explanations…

A

Produce a description of a person or group based on the feelings/perceptions of study participants

93
Q

Some characteristics of idiographic explanations:

A

-Empathetic
-Storytelling

94
Q

Rules for writing research questions

A

o Keep the research question in mind
o Focus on exactly what you want to know
o Ask yourself the question
o Avoid ambiguity
o Be brief
o No double barrel questions
o No generalities
o No leading questions
o No negatives
o No technical terms
o Don’t overstretch participant memory

95
Q

What is the reactive effect?

A

People change their behaviour when they know they’re being studied

96
Q

What are the 2 main components of cross-sectional design?

A

Structured interviewing and structured observation

97
Q

What is structured interviewing?

A

All respondents are asked exactly the same question with the help of a formal interview schedule

98
Q

What are structured observations?

A

Researchers follow rules of when, where, how, and what they should look for and record observations

99
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of open ended questions?

A

 Encourage respondents to share their thoughts/feelings (S)
 Useful for in depth analysis (S)
 Time consuming (W)
 Limited standardization (W)

100
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of closed ended questions?

A

 Collect structured data (S)
 Limited insight (W)
 Response bias (W)

101
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of a questionnaire?

A

 Quick, cheap, easy (S)
 Absence of interviewer effects (S)
 Order effects (W)
 Risk of missing info (W)
 Can’t go into too much depth (W)

102
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of a structured interview?

A

 Researchers present to explain questions (S)
 No risk of missing data (S)
 Can ask different kinds of questions (S)

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