Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
Anthropology
A
The study of humankind, viewed from the perspective of all people and all times
2
Q
Biological / physical anthropology
A
The study of the evolution, variation and adaptation of humans and their past and present relatives;
3
Q
Biocultural approach
A
The scientific study of the interrelationship between what humans have inherited genetically and culturally
4
Q
Scientific method
A
An empirical research method in which data are gathered from observations of natural phenomena, hypotheses are formulated and tested, and conclusions are drawn that validade or modify the original hypothesis
5
Q
Six big events of human evolution
A
- Bipedalism: walking on 2 feet (the most profound physical difference between humans and other animals)
- Non-honing canine: an upper canine tooth that, as part of a non-honing chewing mechanism, is not sharpened against the lower third premolar -> we process food in ways unique to humans
- lacks large, projecting canines in the upper jaw and a diastema (gap) between the lower canine and the third molar - Speech: express complex thoughts and ideas -> the shape of the hyoid bone is unique to hominins and reflects their ability to speak
- Material culture and tools: human’s production and use of stone tools -> complex and diverse
- Hunting: human’s relatively large brains require a lot of energy to function and develop -> need animal protein
- tools + organized social behavior + travel long distances - Domesticated food: domestication of plants and animals -> total reliance on domesticated plants and animals + profoundly impact on human biology and behavior
6
Q
Adaptations
A
Changes in physical structure, function, or behavior that allow an organism or species to survive and reproduce in a given environment
7
Q
Blending inheritance
A
An outdated, refuted theory that the phenotype of an offspring was a uniform blend of the parent’s phenotypes
8
Q
Gemmules
A
As proposed by Darwin, the units of inheritance, supposedly accumulated in the gametes so they could be passed on to offspring
9
Q
Carolus Linnaeus
A
Binomial nomenclature
10
Q
Binomial nomenclature
A
The formal naming system for living things
First: genus
Second: epithet
11
Q
Genus
A
A group of related species
12
Q
Species
A
A group of closely related organisms having the potential to interbreed and produce fertile offspring
13
Q
Hybridization
A
The process of interbreeding between members of different species
14
Q
Lamarckism
A
Theory of Evolution through the inheritance of acquired characteristics in which an organism can pass on features acquired during its lifetime —> inheritance by acquired characteristics
15
Q
Catastrophism
A
Doctrine asserting that cataclysmic events (such as volcanoes, earthquakes, and floods), rather than evolutionary processes, are responsible for geologic changes throughout Earth’s history
16
Q
Natural Selection
A
The process by which some organism, with features that enable them to adapt to the environment, preferentially survive and reproduce, thereby increasing the frequency of those features in the population
17
Q
Georges Cuvier
A
Catastrophism
- no transmutation of species
- extinction of past life forms
- destruction and migration
- variations in fossil records
18
Q
Jean Baptiste Lamarck
A
Inheritance of acquired characteristics
- no idea of extinction
- changes occur in the living
- changes by necessity
19
Q
Charles Darwin
A
- Origin of the Species
- Edinburgh + Cambridge
- Voyage of the Beagle: morphological patterns across time (common ancestors) + biogeography (movement across landscape) + individuals within populations vary
20
Q
Charles Lyell
A
Uniformitarianism: forces of nature occurring today are the same as in the past
21
Q
Thomas Malthus
A
The food supply remains stable while populations increase exponentially
Darwin: struggle to survive
22
Q
Georges Cuvier
A
Catastrophism
23
Q
Fitness
A
Average number of offspring produced by parents with a particular genotype compared to the number of offspring produced by parents with another genotype
24
Q
Law of independent assortment
A
Mendel’s second law
Asserts that the inheritance of one trait does not affect the inheritance of other traits
25
Law of Segregation
Mendel’s first law
Asserts that the two alleles for any given gene (or trait) are inherited, one from each parent; during gamete reproduction, only one of the 2 alleles will be present in each ovum or sperm
26
Heterozygous
The condition in which the two alleles of a pair of alleles at a single locus on homologous chromosomes are different
27
Homologous
Refers to chromosomes that occur in matching pairs in the genome
28
Genotype
The genetic makeup of an organism; the combination of alleles for a given gene
29
Phenotype
The physical expression of the genotype; it may be influence by the environment
30
Dominant allele
An allele that is expressed in an organism’s phenotype and that is simultaneously masks the effects of another allele, if another allele is present
31
Recessive allele
An allele that is expressed in an organism’s phenotype if 2 copies are present but is masked if the dominant allele is present
32
Eukaryotic cell
Membrane-bound nucleus containing both the genetic material and specialized organelles
33
Gametes
Sexual reproductive cells, ova and sperm, that have a haploid number of chromosomes and that can unite with a gamete of the opposite type to form a new organism
34
Haploid cell
A cell that has a single set of unaired chromosomes, half the number of chromosomes as a diploid cell
35
Diploid cell
A cell that has a full complement of paired chromosomes
36
Somatic cells
Diploid cells that form the organs, tissues and other parts of an organism’s body
37
Chromosomes
The stands of genetic material (DNA) found in the nucleus of multi celled organisms that contain hundreds or thousands of genes
38
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
The molecules that are responsible for making a chemical copy of a gene needed for a specific protein - that is, for the transcription phase of protein synthesis
39
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
A fundamental structural component of a ribosome
40
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
The molecules that are responsible for transporting amino aids to the ribosomes during protein synthesis
41
Transcription
The first step of protein synthesis, involving the creation of mRNA based on the DNA template
42
Translation
The second step of protein synthesis, involving the transfer of amino acids by tRNA to the ribosomes, which are then added to the protein chain
43
Amino acids
Organic molecules combined in a specific sequence by ribosomes to form a protein
44
Adenine
One of the nitrogen’s bases that make up DNA and RNA
Pairs with thymine in DNA and uracil in RNA
45
Anticodons
Sequences of 3 nitrogen bases carried by tRNA
Match up with the complementary mRNA codons, and each designates a specific amino acid during protein synthesis
46
Autosomes
All chromosomes, except the sex chromosomes, that occur in pairs in all somatic cells
47
Exons
Coding DNA: coded to produce a specific protein and are transcribed and translated during protein synthesis
48
Codons
Sequences of 3 nitrogen bases carried by mRNA that are coded to produce specific amino acids in protein synthesis
49
Complementary bases
The predictable pairing of nitrogen bases in the structure of DNA and RNA, such that adenine and thymine will always pair together (and adenina and uracil in RNA) and cytosine and guanine pair together
50
Cytosine
One of the nitrogen bases that make up DNA and RNA
Pairs with guanine
51
Cytoplasm
Jellylike substance inside the cell membrane that surrounds the nucleus and in which the organelles are suspended
52
Genome
The complete set of genetic information - chromosomal and mitochondrial DNA - for an organism or species that represents all the inheritable traits
53
Guanine
One of the nitrogen bases that make up DNA and RNA
Pairs with cytosine
54
Homeotic (Hox) genes
The genes responsible for differentiating the specific segments of the body, such as the head, tail, and limbs, during embryological development; also known as homeobox genes ho
55
Homologous
Chromosomes that occur in matching pairs in the genome
56
Karyotype
Complete set of chromosomes for an individual organism or a species.
Typically presented as a photograph of an individual’s chromosomes that have been arranged in homologous pairs and put into numerical order by size
57
Locus
The location on a chromosome of a specific gene
58
Meiosis
The production of gametes through one DNA replication and two cell (and nuclear) divisions, creating four haploid cell
59
Mitosis
The process of cellular and nuclear division that creates two identical diploid daughter cells
60
Introns
Non coding DNA: not coded to produce specific proteins and are excised before protein synthesis
61
Nucleotide
The building block of DNA and RNA, composed of a sugar, a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogen bases
62
Nucleus
Membrane bound structure in eukaryotic cells that contains the genetic material
63
Recombination
The exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes, resulting from a crossover event
64
Regulatory genes
Those genes that determine when structural genes and other regulatory gene are turned on and off for protein synthesis
65
DNA replication
The process of copying nuclear DNA prior to cell division so that each new daughter cell receives a complete complement of DNA
66
Ribosomes
The organelles attached to the surface of the endoplasmic reticulum, located in the cytoplasm of a cell; the are the site of protein synthesis
67
Sex chromosomes
Pair of chromosomes that determine an organism’s biological sex
68
Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)
Variations in the DNA sequence due to the change of a single nitrogen base
69
Thymine
One of four nitrogen bases that make up DNA
It pairs with adenine
70
Uracil
One of 4 nitrogen bases
Pairs with adenine
71
Endogamous
The practice of breeding only within the population
72
Exogamous
Practice of breeding outside the population
73
Gene pool
All the genetic information in a breeding population
74
Huntington’s chorea
Rare genetic disorder in which the central nervous system degenerates and the individual loses control over voluntary movements, with the symptoms often appearing between ages 30 and 50
75
Founder effect
The accumulation of random genetic changes in a small population that has become isolated from the parent population due to the genetic input of only a few colonizers
the reduction in genetic variation that results when a small subset of a large population is used to establish a new colony.
76
Macro evolution
Large-scale evolution, such as speciation event, that occurs after hundreds or thousands of generations
77
Micro evolution
Small-scale evolution, such as changes in allele frequency, that occurs from one generation to the next
78
Reproductive isolation
Any circumstance that prevents two populations from interbreeding and exchanging genetic material, such as when 2 populations are separated by a large body of water or a major mountain range
79
Sickle cell anemia
Genetic blood disease in which the red blood cells become deformed and sickle-shaped, decreasing their ability to carry oxygen to tissues
80
Bipedalism
Walking on 2 feet
81
Cultural anthropology
Study of modern human societies through the analysis of the origins, evolutions, and variation of culture
82
Evolvability
The capacity to evolve
83
Forensic anthropology
Recovery, analysis, and identification of human remains
84
Hominins
Humans and human like ancestors
85
Morphology
Physical shape and appearance
86
Nonhoning canine
Upper canine tooth that, as part of a nonhoning chewing mechanism, is not sharpened against the lower third premolar
87
Adaptive radiation
Diversification of an ancestral group of organisms into new forms that are adapted to specific environmental changes
88
Allele
One or more alternative forms of a gene
89
Demography
The study of a population’s features and vital statistics, including birth rate, death rate, population size, and population density
90
DNA
Double stranded molecule that provides the genetic code for an organism, consisting of phosphate, deoxyribose sugar, and four types of nitrogen bases
91
Evolutionary synthesis
Unified theory of evolution that combines genetics with natural selection
92
Gene flow
A mixture, or the exchange of alleles between two populations
93
Gene
Basic unit of inheritance; a sequence of DNA on a chromosome, coded to produce a specific protein
94
Genetic drift
Random change in allele frequency from one generation to the next, with greater effect in small populations
95
Genetics
Study of specific genes and their function and transmission
96
Genomics
Study of an organism’s entire set of genes, or genome
97
Habitat
The specific area of the natural environment in which an organism lives
98
Mendelian inheritance
Basic principles associated with the transmission of genetic material, forming the basis of genetics, including the law of segregation and the law of independent assortment
99
Mutation
Random change in a gene or chromosome, creating a new trait that may be advantageous, disadvantageous, or neutral in its effects on the organism
100
Population genetics
Focuses in gene frequencies and the effects of those changes on adaptation and evolution
101
Taxonomy
The classification of organisms into a system that reflects degrees of relatedness
102
Adenine triphosphate (ATP)
Important cellular molecule created by the mitochondria and carrying the energy necessary for cellular functions
103
Antibodies
Molecules that form as part of the primary immune response to the presence of foreign substances
They attach to foreign antibodies
104
Antigens
Specific proteins, on surfaces of cells, that stimulate the immune system’s antibody production
105
Codominance
2 different alleles are equally dominant: both alleles are fully expressed in a heterozygote’s phenotype
106
Crossing-over
The process by which homologous chromosomes partially wrap around each other and exchange genetic information during meiosis
107
Epigenetic
Chemical changes in the genome affecting how the underlying DNA is used in the production of proteins, but without altering the DNA sequences
108
Essencial amino acids
Cannot be synthesized in the body
Suppled by diet
109
Haplogroups
Large st of haplotypes, such as the Y chromosome or mitochondrial DNA, that may be used to define a population
110
Haplotypes
Group of alleles that tend to be inherited as a unit because of their closely spaces loci on a single chromosome
111
Heteroplasmic
Regarding mitochondria DNA or other organellar DNA, the quality of being different or varying among the parts of a single organism’s body or even within cells of the same type, usually due to the mutation of the DNA in some organelles but not in other
112
Homoplasmic
Regarding nuclear DNA, the quality of being identical in each cell type (scepter red blood cells) within an organism
113
Matriline
Lineage or inheritance that can be traced from mother to daughter or to son
Mitochondrial DNA
114
Methylation
Attachment of a methyl group, a simple chemical to DNA at certain types throughout the genome
115
Microsatellites
STRs (short tandem repeated): sequences of repeated base pairs of DNA, usually no more than two or six. If repeated excessively, they are often associated with neurological disorders (Huntington’s)
116
Mitochondria
ATP producing organelles in eukaryotic cells
Own independent DNA
117
Monosomy
The condition in which only one of a specific pair of chromosomes is present in a cell’s nucleus
118
Omnigenic
Complex traits that involve various parts of the genome and the interconnections among those parts
119
Patriline
Lineage or inheritance that can be traced from father to son via the Y chromosome
120
Peptide bond
Chemical bond that joins amino acids into a protein chain
121
Phenome
Total set of phenotypic traits in an organism
122
Pleitropy
Phenomenon of a single gene having multiple effects
123
Polygenic
Refers to one phenotypic trait that is affected by two or more genes
124
Polymorphism
Occurrence of 2 or more alternative phenotypes in the population of a species
125
Polypeptide
Protein: chain of amino acids held together by multiple peptide bonds
126
Regulatory genes
Proteins involved in the expression of control genes
127
RNA
Single-stranded molecule involved in protein synthesis, consisting of a phosphate, ribose sugar and one of 4 nitrogen bases
128
Structural genes
Genes coded to produce particular products, such as an enzyme or hormone, rather than regulatory proteins
129
Structural protein
Proteins that form an organism’s physical attributes
130
Translocations
Rearrangements of chromosomes due to the insertion of genetic material from one chromosome to another
131
Trisomy
Condition in which an additional chromosome exists with the homologous pair
132
Abnormal hemoglobin
Hemoglobin altered so that it is less efficient in binding to and carrying oxygen
133
Admixture
Exchange of genetic material between two or more populations
134
Anthropogenic
Relating to any effect caused by humans
135
Balanced polymorphism
Situation in which selection maintains two or more phenotypes for a specific gene in a population
136
Deme
Local population of organisms that have similar genes, interbreed, and produce offspring
137
Directional selection
Selection for one allele over other alleles, causing allele frequencies to shift in one direction
138
Disruptive selection
Selection for both extremes of a phenotypic distribution; may eventually lead to a speciation event
139
Equilibrium
Condition in which a system is stable, balanced and unchanging
140
Frameshift mutation
Change in a gene due to the insertion or deletion of one or more nitrogen bases, which causes the subsequent triplets to be rearranged and the codons to be read incorrectly during translation
141
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD)
Enzyme that aids in the proper functioning of red blood cells
Its deficiency, a genetic condition, leads to hemolytic anemia
142
Hardy- Weinberg law of equilibrium
Mathematical model in population genetics that reflects the relationship between frequencies of alleles and of genotypes; can be used to determine whether a population is undergoing evolutionary changes
143
Hemoglobinopathies
Group of related genetic blood diseases characterized by abnormal hemoglobin
144
Hemolytic anemia
Conditions of insufficient iron in the blood due to the destruction of red blood cells resulting from genetic blood diseases, toxins, or infectious pathogens
145
Induced mutations
Mutations in DNA resulting from exposure to toxic chemicals or to radiation
146
Introgression
Gene flow form closely related groups that were formerly reproductively isolated
147
Klinefelter’s syndrome
Chromosomal trisomy in which males have an extra X chromosome, resulting in an XXY condition; affected individuals typically have reduced fertility
148
Mutagens
Substances, such as as toxins, chemicals, or radiation, that may induce genetic mutations
149
Nonsynonymous point mutation
Point mutation that creates a triplet coded to produce a difference amino acid from that of the original triplet
150
Point mutations
Replacements of a single nitrogen base with another base, which may or may not affect the amino acid for which the triplet codes
151
Positive selection
The process by which advantageous genetic variants quickly increase in frequency in a population
152
Spontaneous mutations
Random changes in DNA that occur during cell division
153
Stabilizing selection
Selection against the extremes of a phenotypic distribution, decreasing the genetic diversity for a trait in the population
154
Synonymous point mutation
Neutral point mutation in which the substituted nitrogen base creates a triplet coded to produce the same amino acids as that of the original triplet
155
Thalassemia
Genetic blood disease in which hemoglobin is improperly synthesized, causing red blood cells to have a much shorter life span
156
Fixity of Species
The ability of one species that remains unchanged over a long period of time
157
Great Chain of Being
Hierarchical structure of all matter and life, thought by medieval Christianity to have decreed by God
158
Modern Synthesis
Darwin + Mende: diversity within a population arose from the random production of mutations, and the environment acted to select the most fit phenotypes
159
Requirements for natural selection
Variety: individuals in a population are different
Heredity: pass on trait to offspring
Competition: individuals struggle to survive
Fitness: differential reproductive success
160
Comte de Buffon
Natural History: change in the universe, in environment, in animals
Micro evolution
161
Use-disuse theory
(Lamarck)
When certain organs become specially developed as a result of some environmental need, then that state of development is hereditary and can be passed on to progeny
162
March of Progress
Obsolete biological hypothesis that organisms have an innate tendency to evolve in a definite direction towards some goal (theology) due to some internal mechanism or “ driving force”.
163
Competition
Direct or indirect interaction of organisms that leads to a change in fitness when the organisms share the same resource
164
Selective pressure
Evolutionary force that causes a particular phenotype to be more favorable in certain environmental conditions
165
Sickle cell + malaria
It turns out that, in these areas, HbS carriers have been naturally selected, because the trait confers some resistance to malaria. Their red blood cells, containing some abnormal hemoglobin, tend to sickle when they are infected by the malaria parasite.
166
Peppered moth evolution
Concept of adaptive evolution - the process by which a trait that confers a reproductive advantage in a particular environment becomes.
Instance of directional color change in the moth population as a consequence of air pollution during the Industrial Revolution
167
Lactase persistence
Lactase persistence—the ability of adults to digest the lactose in milk—varies widely in frequency across human populations. This trait represents an adaptation to the domestication of dairying animals and the subsequent consumption of their milk.
168
Darwin’s Dilemma
How to maintain variation in a population?
The problem with blending inheritance
169
Gregor Mendel
Father of genetics
Law of segregation and independent assortment
170
Thomas Hunt Morgan
Experimental research with the fruit flies by which he established the chromosome theory of heredity
171
Frank, Watson and Crick
Co-discovered the double-helix structure of DNA
172
Splicing
The process by which introns are removed for hnRNA to produce mature messenger RNA that contains only exons
173
ABO Blood System
The ABO blood group antigens are encoded by one genetic locus, the ABO locus, which has three alternative (allelic) forms—A, B, and O. A child receives one of the three alleles from each parent, giving rise to six possible genotypes and four possible blood types (phenotypes).
174
Polygenic inheritance
Characteristic that is influenced by 2 or more genes
Examples: height or skin color
175
Discrete or discontinuous trait
Phenotype that manifests as clear and separable differences in a population
Example: dimple and albinism
176
Continuous tort
Phenotype that manifests as a continuum along a spectrum
Example: height and eye color
177
Population
Group of organisms of one species that interbreed and live and live in the same place at the same time
178
Clines
Measurable gradient in a single characteristic (or biological trait) of species across its geographical range
