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Ant 131 > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Anthropology

A

The study of humankind, viewed from the perspective of all people and all times

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2
Q

Biological / physical anthropology

A

The study of the evolution, variation and adaptation of humans and their past and present relatives;

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3
Q

Biocultural approach

A

The scientific study of the interrelationship between what humans have inherited genetically and culturally

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4
Q

Scientific method

A

An empirical research method in which data are gathered from observations of natural phenomena, hypotheses are formulated and tested, and conclusions are drawn that validade or modify the original hypothesis

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5
Q

Six big events of human evolution

A
  1. Bipedalism: walking on 2 feet (the most profound physical difference between humans and other animals)
  2. Non-honing canine: an upper canine tooth that, as part of a non-honing chewing mechanism, is not sharpened against the lower third premolar -> we process food in ways unique to humans
    - lacks large, projecting canines in the upper jaw and a diastema (gap) between the lower canine and the third molar
  3. Speech: express complex thoughts and ideas -> the shape of the hyoid bone is unique to hominins and reflects their ability to speak
  4. Material culture and tools: human’s production and use of stone tools -> complex and diverse
  5. Hunting: human’s relatively large brains require a lot of energy to function and develop -> need animal protein
    - tools + organized social behavior + travel long distances
  6. Domesticated food: domestication of plants and animals -> total reliance on domesticated plants and animals + profoundly impact on human biology and behavior
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6
Q

Adaptations

A

Changes in physical structure, function, or behavior that allow an organism or species to survive and reproduce in a given environment

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7
Q

Blending inheritance

A

An outdated, refuted theory that the phenotype of an offspring was a uniform blend of the parent’s phenotypes

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8
Q

Gemmules

A

As proposed by Darwin, the units of inheritance, supposedly accumulated in the gametes so they could be passed on to offspring

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9
Q

Carolus Linnaeus

A

Binomial nomenclature

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10
Q

Binomial nomenclature

A

The formal naming system for living things
First: genus
Second: epithet

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11
Q

Genus

A

A group of related species

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12
Q

Species

A

A group of closely related organisms having the potential to interbreed and produce fertile offspring

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13
Q

Hybridization

A

The process of interbreeding between members of different species

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14
Q

Lamarckism

A

Theory of Evolution through the inheritance of acquired characteristics in which an organism can pass on features acquired during its lifetime —> inheritance by acquired characteristics

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15
Q

Catastrophism

A

Doctrine asserting that cataclysmic events (such as volcanoes, earthquakes, and floods), rather than evolutionary processes, are responsible for geologic changes throughout Earth’s history

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16
Q

Natural Selection

A

The process by which some organism, with features that enable them to adapt to the environment, preferentially survive and reproduce, thereby increasing the frequency of those features in the population

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17
Q

Georges Cuvier

A

Catastrophism
- no transmutation of species
- extinction of past life forms
- destruction and migration
- variations in fossil records

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18
Q

Jean Baptiste Lamarck

A

Inheritance of acquired characteristics
- no idea of extinction
- changes occur in the living
- changes by necessity

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19
Q

Charles Darwin

A
  • Origin of the Species
  • Edinburgh + Cambridge
  • Voyage of the Beagle: morphological patterns across time (common ancestors) + biogeography (movement across landscape) + individuals within populations vary
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20
Q

Charles Lyell

A

Uniformitarianism: forces of nature occurring today are the same as in the past

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21
Q

Thomas Malthus

A

The food supply remains stable while populations increase exponentially
Darwin: struggle to survive

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22
Q

Georges Cuvier

A

Catastrophism

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23
Q

Fitness

A

Average number of offspring produced by parents with a particular genotype compared to the number of offspring produced by parents with another genotype

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24
Q

Law of independent assortment

A

Mendel’s second law
Asserts that the inheritance of one trait does not affect the inheritance of other traits

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25
Q

Law of Segregation

A

Mendel’s first law
Asserts that the two alleles for any given gene (or trait) are inherited, one from each parent; during gamete reproduction, only one of the 2 alleles will be present in each ovum or sperm

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26
Q

Heterozygous

A

The condition in which the two alleles of a pair of alleles at a single locus on homologous chromosomes are different

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27
Q

Homologous

A

Refers to chromosomes that occur in matching pairs in the genome

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28
Q

Genotype

A

The genetic makeup of an organism; the combination of alleles for a given gene

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29
Q

Phenotype

A

The physical expression of the genotype; it may be influence by the environment

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30
Q

Dominant allele

A

An allele that is expressed in an organism’s phenotype and that is simultaneously masks the effects of another allele, if another allele is present

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31
Q

Recessive allele

A

An allele that is expressed in an organism’s phenotype if 2 copies are present but is masked if the dominant allele is present

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32
Q

Eukaryotic cell

A

Membrane-bound nucleus containing both the genetic material and specialized organelles

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33
Q

Gametes

A

Sexual reproductive cells, ova and sperm, that have a haploid number of chromosomes and that can unite with a gamete of the opposite type to form a new organism

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34
Q

Haploid cell

A

A cell that has a single set of unaired chromosomes, half the number of chromosomes as a diploid cell

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35
Q

Diploid cell

A

A cell that has a full complement of paired chromosomes

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36
Q

Somatic cells

A

Diploid cells that form the organs, tissues and other parts of an organism’s body

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37
Q

Chromosomes

A

The stands of genetic material (DNA) found in the nucleus of multi celled organisms that contain hundreds or thousands of genes

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38
Q

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

A

The molecules that are responsible for making a chemical copy of a gene needed for a specific protein - that is, for the transcription phase of protein synthesis

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39
Q

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

A

A fundamental structural component of a ribosome

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40
Q

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

A

The molecules that are responsible for transporting amino aids to the ribosomes during protein synthesis

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41
Q

Transcription

A

The first step of protein synthesis, involving the creation of mRNA based on the DNA template

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42
Q

Translation

A

The second step of protein synthesis, involving the transfer of amino acids by tRNA to the ribosomes, which are then added to the protein chain

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43
Q

Amino acids

A

Organic molecules combined in a specific sequence by ribosomes to form a protein

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44
Q

Adenine

A

One of the nitrogen’s bases that make up DNA and RNA
Pairs with thymine in DNA and uracil in RNA

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45
Q

Anticodons

A

Sequences of 3 nitrogen bases carried by tRNA
Match up with the complementary mRNA codons, and each designates a specific amino acid during protein synthesis

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46
Q

Autosomes

A

All chromosomes, except the sex chromosomes, that occur in pairs in all somatic cells

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47
Q

Exons

A

Coding DNA: coded to produce a specific protein and are transcribed and translated during protein synthesis

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48
Q

Codons

A

Sequences of 3 nitrogen bases carried by mRNA that are coded to produce specific amino acids in protein synthesis

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49
Q

Complementary bases

A

The predictable pairing of nitrogen bases in the structure of DNA and RNA, such that adenine and thymine will always pair together (and adenina and uracil in RNA) and cytosine and guanine pair together

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50
Q

Cytosine

A

One of the nitrogen bases that make up DNA and RNA
Pairs with guanine

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51
Q

Cytoplasm

A

Jellylike substance inside the cell membrane that surrounds the nucleus and in which the organelles are suspended

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52
Q

Genome

A

The complete set of genetic information - chromosomal and mitochondrial DNA - for an organism or species that represents all the inheritable traits

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53
Q

Guanine

A

One of the nitrogen bases that make up DNA and RNA
Pairs with cytosine

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54
Q

Homeotic (Hox) genes

A

The genes responsible for differentiating the specific segments of the body, such as the head, tail, and limbs, during embryological development; also known as homeobox genes ho

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55
Q

Homologous

A

Chromosomes that occur in matching pairs in the genome

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56
Q

Karyotype

A

Complete set of chromosomes for an individual organism or a species.
Typically presented as a photograph of an individual’s chromosomes that have been arranged in homologous pairs and put into numerical order by size

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57
Q

Locus

A

The location on a chromosome of a specific gene

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58
Q

Meiosis

A

The production of gametes through one DNA replication and two cell (and nuclear) divisions, creating four haploid cell

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59
Q

Mitosis

A

The process of cellular and nuclear division that creates two identical diploid daughter cells

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60
Q

Introns

A

Non coding DNA: not coded to produce specific proteins and are excised before protein synthesis

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61
Q

Nucleotide

A

The building block of DNA and RNA, composed of a sugar, a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogen bases

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62
Q

Nucleus

A

Membrane bound structure in eukaryotic cells that contains the genetic material

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63
Q

Recombination

A

The exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes, resulting from a crossover event

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64
Q

Regulatory genes

A

Those genes that determine when structural genes and other regulatory gene are turned on and off for protein synthesis

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65
Q

DNA replication

A

The process of copying nuclear DNA prior to cell division so that each new daughter cell receives a complete complement of DNA

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66
Q

Ribosomes

A

The organelles attached to the surface of the endoplasmic reticulum, located in the cytoplasm of a cell; the are the site of protein synthesis

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67
Q

Sex chromosomes

A

Pair of chromosomes that determine an organism’s biological sex

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68
Q

Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)

A

Variations in the DNA sequence due to the change of a single nitrogen base

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69
Q

Thymine

A

One of four nitrogen bases that make up DNA
It pairs with adenine

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70
Q

Uracil

A

One of 4 nitrogen bases
Pairs with adenine

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71
Q

Endogamous

A

The practice of breeding only within the population

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72
Q

Exogamous

A

Practice of breeding outside the population

73
Q

Gene pool

A

All the genetic information in a breeding population

74
Q

Huntington’s chorea

A

Rare genetic disorder in which the central nervous system degenerates and the individual loses control over voluntary movements, with the symptoms often appearing between ages 30 and 50

75
Q

Founder effect

A

The accumulation of random genetic changes in a small population that has become isolated from the parent population due to the genetic input of only a few colonizers

the reduction in genetic variation that results when a small subset of a large population is used to establish a new colony.

76
Q

Macro evolution

A

Large-scale evolution, such as speciation event, that occurs after hundreds or thousands of generations

77
Q

Micro evolution

A

Small-scale evolution, such as changes in allele frequency, that occurs from one generation to the next

78
Q

Reproductive isolation

A

Any circumstance that prevents two populations from interbreeding and exchanging genetic material, such as when 2 populations are separated by a large body of water or a major mountain range

79
Q

Sickle cell anemia

A

Genetic blood disease in which the red blood cells become deformed and sickle-shaped, decreasing their ability to carry oxygen to tissues

80
Q

Bipedalism

A

Walking on 2 feet

81
Q

Cultural anthropology

A

Study of modern human societies through the analysis of the origins, evolutions, and variation of culture

82
Q

Evolvability

A

The capacity to evolve

83
Q

Forensic anthropology

A

Recovery, analysis, and identification of human remains

84
Q

Hominins

A

Humans and human like ancestors

85
Q

Morphology

A

Physical shape and appearance

86
Q

Nonhoning canine

A

Upper canine tooth that, as part of a nonhoning chewing mechanism, is not sharpened against the lower third premolar

87
Q

Adaptive radiation

A

Diversification of an ancestral group of organisms into new forms that are adapted to specific environmental changes

88
Q

Allele

A

One or more alternative forms of a gene

89
Q

Demography

A

The study of a population’s features and vital statistics, including birth rate, death rate, population size, and population density

90
Q

DNA

A

Double stranded molecule that provides the genetic code for an organism, consisting of phosphate, deoxyribose sugar, and four types of nitrogen bases

91
Q

Evolutionary synthesis

A

Unified theory of evolution that combines genetics with natural selection

92
Q

Gene flow

A

A mixture, or the exchange of alleles between two populations

93
Q

Gene

A

Basic unit of inheritance; a sequence of DNA on a chromosome, coded to produce a specific protein

94
Q

Genetic drift

A

Random change in allele frequency from one generation to the next, with greater effect in small populations

95
Q

Genetics

A

Study of specific genes and their function and transmission

96
Q

Genomics

A

Study of an organism’s entire set of genes, or genome

97
Q

Habitat

A

The specific area of the natural environment in which an organism lives

98
Q

Mendelian inheritance

A

Basic principles associated with the transmission of genetic material, forming the basis of genetics, including the law of segregation and the law of independent assortment

99
Q

Mutation

A

Random change in a gene or chromosome, creating a new trait that may be advantageous, disadvantageous, or neutral in its effects on the organism

100
Q

Population genetics

A

Focuses in gene frequencies and the effects of those changes on adaptation and evolution

101
Q

Taxonomy

A

The classification of organisms into a system that reflects degrees of relatedness

102
Q

Adenine triphosphate (ATP)

A

Important cellular molecule created by the mitochondria and carrying the energy necessary for cellular functions

103
Q

Antibodies

A

Molecules that form as part of the primary immune response to the presence of foreign substances
They attach to foreign antibodies

104
Q

Antigens

A

Specific proteins, on surfaces of cells, that stimulate the immune system’s antibody production

105
Q

Codominance

A

2 different alleles are equally dominant: both alleles are fully expressed in a heterozygote’s phenotype

106
Q

Crossing-over

A

The process by which homologous chromosomes partially wrap around each other and exchange genetic information during meiosis

107
Q

Epigenetic

A

Chemical changes in the genome affecting how the underlying DNA is used in the production of proteins, but without altering the DNA sequences

108
Q

Essencial amino acids

A

Cannot be synthesized in the body
Suppled by diet

109
Q

Haplogroups

A

Large st of haplotypes, such as the Y chromosome or mitochondrial DNA, that may be used to define a population

110
Q

Haplotypes

A

Group of alleles that tend to be inherited as a unit because of their closely spaces loci on a single chromosome

111
Q

Heteroplasmic

A

Regarding mitochondria DNA or other organellar DNA, the quality of being different or varying among the parts of a single organism’s body or even within cells of the same type, usually due to the mutation of the DNA in some organelles but not in other

112
Q

Homoplasmic

A

Regarding nuclear DNA, the quality of being identical in each cell type (scepter red blood cells) within an organism

113
Q

Matriline

A

Lineage or inheritance that can be traced from mother to daughter or to son
Mitochondrial DNA

114
Q

Methylation

A

Attachment of a methyl group, a simple chemical to DNA at certain types throughout the genome

115
Q

Microsatellites

A

STRs (short tandem repeated): sequences of repeated base pairs of DNA, usually no more than two or six. If repeated excessively, they are often associated with neurological disorders (Huntington’s)

116
Q

Mitochondria

A

ATP producing organelles in eukaryotic cells
Own independent DNA

117
Q

Monosomy

A

The condition in which only one of a specific pair of chromosomes is present in a cell’s nucleus

118
Q

Omnigenic

A

Complex traits that involve various parts of the genome and the interconnections among those parts

119
Q

Patriline

A

Lineage or inheritance that can be traced from father to son via the Y chromosome

120
Q

Peptide bond

A

Chemical bond that joins amino acids into a protein chain

121
Q

Phenome

A

Total set of phenotypic traits in an organism

122
Q

Pleitropy

A

Phenomenon of a single gene having multiple effects

123
Q

Polygenic

A

Refers to one phenotypic trait that is affected by two or more genes

124
Q

Polymorphism

A

Occurrence of 2 or more alternative phenotypes in the population of a species

125
Q

Polypeptide

A

Protein: chain of amino acids held together by multiple peptide bonds

126
Q

Regulatory genes

A

Proteins involved in the expression of control genes

127
Q

RNA

A

Single-stranded molecule involved in protein synthesis, consisting of a phosphate, ribose sugar and one of 4 nitrogen bases

128
Q

Structural genes

A

Genes coded to produce particular products, such as an enzyme or hormone, rather than regulatory proteins

129
Q

Structural protein

A

Proteins that form an organism’s physical attributes

130
Q

Translocations

A

Rearrangements of chromosomes due to the insertion of genetic material from one chromosome to another

131
Q

Trisomy

A

Condition in which an additional chromosome exists with the homologous pair

132
Q

Abnormal hemoglobin

A

Hemoglobin altered so that it is less efficient in binding to and carrying oxygen

133
Q

Admixture

A

Exchange of genetic material between two or more populations

134
Q

Anthropogenic

A

Relating to any effect caused by humans

135
Q

Balanced polymorphism

A

Situation in which selection maintains two or more phenotypes for a specific gene in a population

136
Q

Deme

A

Local population of organisms that have similar genes, interbreed, and produce offspring

137
Q

Directional selection

A

Selection for one allele over other alleles, causing allele frequencies to shift in one direction

138
Q

Disruptive selection

A

Selection for both extremes of a phenotypic distribution; may eventually lead to a speciation event

139
Q

Equilibrium

A

Condition in which a system is stable, balanced and unchanging

140
Q

Frameshift mutation

A

Change in a gene due to the insertion or deletion of one or more nitrogen bases, which causes the subsequent triplets to be rearranged and the codons to be read incorrectly during translation

141
Q

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD)

A

Enzyme that aids in the proper functioning of red blood cells
Its deficiency, a genetic condition, leads to hemolytic anemia

142
Q

Hardy- Weinberg law of equilibrium

A

Mathematical model in population genetics that reflects the relationship between frequencies of alleles and of genotypes; can be used to determine whether a population is undergoing evolutionary changes

143
Q

Hemoglobinopathies

A

Group of related genetic blood diseases characterized by abnormal hemoglobin

144
Q

Hemolytic anemia

A

Conditions of insufficient iron in the blood due to the destruction of red blood cells resulting from genetic blood diseases, toxins, or infectious pathogens

145
Q

Induced mutations

A

Mutations in DNA resulting from exposure to toxic chemicals or to radiation

146
Q

Introgression

A

Gene flow form closely related groups that were formerly reproductively isolated

147
Q

Klinefelter’s syndrome

A

Chromosomal trisomy in which males have an extra X chromosome, resulting in an XXY condition; affected individuals typically have reduced fertility

148
Q

Mutagens

A

Substances, such as as toxins, chemicals, or radiation, that may induce genetic mutations

149
Q

Nonsynonymous point mutation

A

Point mutation that creates a triplet coded to produce a difference amino acid from that of the original triplet

150
Q

Point mutations

A

Replacements of a single nitrogen base with another base, which may or may not affect the amino acid for which the triplet codes

151
Q

Positive selection

A

The process by which advantageous genetic variants quickly increase in frequency in a population

152
Q

Spontaneous mutations

A

Random changes in DNA that occur during cell division

153
Q

Stabilizing selection

A

Selection against the extremes of a phenotypic distribution, decreasing the genetic diversity for a trait in the population

154
Q

Synonymous point mutation

A

Neutral point mutation in which the substituted nitrogen base creates a triplet coded to produce the same amino acids as that of the original triplet

155
Q

Thalassemia

A

Genetic blood disease in which hemoglobin is improperly synthesized, causing red blood cells to have a much shorter life span

156
Q

Fixity of Species

A

The ability of one species that remains unchanged over a long period of time

157
Q

Great Chain of Being

A

Hierarchical structure of all matter and life, thought by medieval Christianity to have decreed by God

158
Q

Modern Synthesis

A

Darwin + Mende: diversity within a population arose from the random production of mutations, and the environment acted to select the most fit phenotypes

159
Q

Requirements for natural selection

A

Variety: individuals in a population are different
Heredity: pass on trait to offspring
Competition: individuals struggle to survive
Fitness: differential reproductive success

160
Q

Comte de Buffon

A

Natural History: change in the universe, in environment, in animals
Micro evolution

161
Q

Use-disuse theory

A

(Lamarck)
When certain organs become specially developed as a result of some environmental need, then that state of development is hereditary and can be passed on to progeny

162
Q

March of Progress

A

Obsolete biological hypothesis that organisms have an innate tendency to evolve in a definite direction towards some goal (theology) due to some internal mechanism or “ driving force”.

163
Q

Competition

A

Direct or indirect interaction of organisms that leads to a change in fitness when the organisms share the same resource

164
Q

Selective pressure

A

Evolutionary force that causes a particular phenotype to be more favorable in certain environmental conditions

165
Q

Sickle cell + malaria

A

It turns out that, in these areas, HbS carriers have been naturally selected, because the trait confers some resistance to malaria. Their red blood cells, containing some abnormal hemoglobin, tend to sickle when they are infected by the malaria parasite.

166
Q

Peppered moth evolution

A

Concept of adaptive evolution - the process by which a trait that confers a reproductive advantage in a particular environment becomes.
Instance of directional color change in the moth population as a consequence of air pollution during the Industrial Revolution

167
Q

Lactase persistence

A

Lactase persistence—the ability of adults to digest the lactose in milk—varies widely in frequency across human populations. This trait represents an adaptation to the domestication of dairying animals and the subsequent consumption of their milk.

168
Q

Darwin’s Dilemma

A

How to maintain variation in a population?
The problem with blending inheritance

169
Q

Gregor Mendel

A

Father of genetics
Law of segregation and independent assortment

170
Q

Thomas Hunt Morgan

A

Experimental research with the fruit flies by which he established the chromosome theory of heredity

171
Q

Frank, Watson and Crick

A

Co-discovered the double-helix structure of DNA

172
Q

Splicing

A

The process by which introns are removed for hnRNA to produce mature messenger RNA that contains only exons

173
Q

ABO Blood System

A

The ABO blood group antigens are encoded by one genetic locus, the ABO locus, which has three alternative (allelic) forms—A, B, and O. A child receives one of the three alleles from each parent, giving rise to six possible genotypes and four possible blood types (phenotypes).

174
Q

Polygenic inheritance

A

Characteristic that is influenced by 2 or more genes
Examples: height or skin color

175
Q

Discrete or discontinuous trait

A

Phenotype that manifests as clear and separable differences in a population
Example: dimple and albinism

176
Q

Continuous tort

A

Phenotype that manifests as a continuum along a spectrum
Example: height and eye color

177
Q

Population

A

Group of organisms of one species that interbreed and live and live in the same place at the same time

178
Q

Clines

A

Measurable gradient in a single characteristic (or biological trait) of species across its geographical range

Ant 131 (2 decks)

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