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ornithology > exam 1 > Flashcards

exam 1 Flashcards

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Shorebirds of North America flashcards
1
Q

Diagnostic characteristic

A

trait shared by all birds, but no other LIVING organisms

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2
Q

Unifying characteristics

A
  • reflect a common evolutionary history
  • shared by all birds
  • other organsims may also share these traits
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3
Q

Evolution

A

species have changed over time and are related by descent from a common ancestor

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4
Q

Name a diagnostic characteristic of birds

A

feathers

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5
Q

Name at least 5 unifying characteristics of birds

A

1, Bills
2. Skeletal specializations - pneumatic bones, fusion/reduction of bones
3. Bipedalism - digitagrade feet (walk on toes)
4. centralized body mass for flight and balanced walk on land
5. High metabolism
6. specialized circulatory and respiratory systems
7. highly developed CNS and vision
8. large, nutrient rich eggs
9. loss of urinary bladder
10. Loss of teeth (replaced by gizzard)

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6
Q

Natural selection

A

individuals that survive to reproduce will have higher fitness

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7
Q

Adaptive radiation

A

process in which organisms diversify rapidly from an ancestral species into a multitude of new forms that fill new ecological niches

ex) galapagos finches diversified their bill shapes to fill new niches

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8
Q

convergent evolution

A

evolution of shared characers due to similar ecological pressures NOT common ancestry (traits are analagous not homologous)

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9
Q

Phylogeny

A

the evolutionary history of an organism

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10
Q

Systematics

A

the field of study that seeks to reconstruct phylogenies

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11
Q

Phyletic evolution

A

gradual change in a single lineage

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12
Q

speciation

A

splitting of a single phyletic lineage into two or more

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13
Q

extinction

A

termination of a lineage

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14
Q

Biological species concept

A

a group of interbreeding or potentially interbreeding populations that are reproductively isolated from other groups

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15
Q

Phenetics

A

organisms are grouped based on overall similarity without regard to evolutionary history

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16
Q

Cladistics

A

some traits are more useful than others in determining relationships, particularly shared, derived traits

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17
Q

Phylogeny

A

an evolutionary history of a group of taxa described as an evolutionary tree (cladogram) with a common ancestor at the base and descendent taxa at the branch tips

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18
Q

The word ‘taxa’ can describe

A

a population, subspecies, species or genera

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19
Q

What types of characters should you chose in cladistics?

A

homologous characters (show the clearest evolutionary relationships)

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20
Q

Homologous trait

A

a trait that is derived from a common ancestral trait

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21
Q

Analagous trait

A

does not show an evolutionary relationship between two animals - appears similar due to convergent evolution

ex) bird wing and insect wing

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22
Q

Synapomorphy

A

shared, derived traits - define a monophyletic group

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23
Q

Symplesiomorphies

A

shared among all taxa in a phylogeny due to its evolution in a common ancestor

ex) in birds, this might be feathers

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24
Q

Homoplasies

A

are analagous traits OR reversals

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25
Q

What type of traits are the most useful for classifying high level taxonomic categories?

A

conserved characteristics

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26
Q

Name some conserved characteristics that can help determine taxonomy in birds

A
  1. bony palate - separates paleognathae from neognathae
  2. nares
  3. structure of leg and foot muscles
  4. morphology of vocal apparatus
  5. behavior
  6. vocalizations
  7. downy chick plumage
  8. toe arrangement
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27
Q

Parsimony

A

the principle that the most likely explanation is the simplest one - the cladogram that is most likely to be closest to reality is the one with the fewest transitions (losses/gains of traits)

this is based on the assumption that synapomorphies are more common than homoplasies

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28
Q

Monophyletic group

A

includes the most recent common ancestor of a group of organisms and ALL OF ITS DESCENDANTS

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29
Q

polyphyletic group

A

does not include the common ancestor of all members of the taxon

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30
Q

paraphyletic group

A

includes the most recent common ancestor, but not every descendant

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31
Q

Reptiles and birds describe this type of phylogenetic group

A

monophyletic group

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32
Q

reptiles describe this type of phylogenetic group

A

paraphyletic group

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33
Q

warm blooded animals (mammals/birds) describes this type of phylogenetic group?

A

polyphyletic group

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34
Q

Name some steps in the evolution of modern birds

A
  1. reversed hallux - grasping or perching foot
  2. tarsometatarsus - fused leg bones
  3. carpometacarpus - fused wrist and hand bones
  4. pygostyle - shortened tail vertebrae/fusion of bones
  5. keeled sternum - attachment of flight muscles
  6. modern coracoid - modified shoulder joint allows movement of wing above head
  7. alula - facilitates flight by reducing turbulence, esp. during slow flight
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35
Q

This group of birds that occured ‘after archaeopteryx’ is now extinct

A

Enantiornithine birds

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36
Q

What are some characteristics of Enantiornithines? (6)

A
  1. most abundant and diverse group of avialans in the cretaceous period
  2. additional modifications for flight
  3. modern perching foot
  4. advanced forelimb modifications (raise wings over body and fold them)
  5. retained teeth and clawed fingers on each wing
  6. NOT ancestors of modern birds
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37
Q

Name some characteristics of ornithurae birds (2)

A
  1. uncinate processes connect ribs and protect thoracic cavity
  2. loss of teeth
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38
Q

Name 2 branches of extinct ornithurae birds

A
  1. Hesperornithiformes - toothed diving birds with larged lobed feet
  2. Ichthyornithiformes - flying toothed seabirds - like terns
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39
Q

Name the ancestors of modern orders that survived the mass extinction (2)

A
  1. Paleognathae - ratites/tinamous
  2. Neognathae
    - Galloanserae (Galliformes - turkey and quail + Anseriformes - ducks)
    - Neoaves (procellariiformes - petrels and albatross + shorebirds - sandpipers and plovers)
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40
Q

Feathers

A

unique epidermal structure composed of a special class of beta-keratins

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41
Q

Types of feathers (7)

A
  1. contour feathers
  2. flight feathers
  3. down
  4. semiplumes
  5. filoplumes
  6. bristles
  7. powderdowns
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42
Q

Name the two types of vaned feathers

A
  1. contour feathers
  2. flight feathers
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43
Q

Calamus

A

the bare part of the feather where it attaches to the bird

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44
Q

Vane

A

the part of the feather that is connected to the rachis

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45
Q

Pennaceous structure

A

interlocking barbs

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46
Q

Barb

A

the part of the feather that branches from the rachis, including the ramus, barbule and barbicel

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47
Q

What is the relationship between the barbule and barbicel

A

barbicels are hooklike structures that protrude from the barbules

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48
Q

What are some characteristics of contour feathers

A
  1. feathers that cover the body and wings
  2. may have an aftershaft
  3. symmetrical vanes
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49
Q

What are the 2 types of wing feathers

A
  1. primaries attach to the bones of the hand and second digit (fused)
    - primaries are numbered starting at ten (X) on the leading edge all the way down to 1 - BIRDS ONLY HAVE 10 PRIMARIES
  2. secondaries - number of secondaries may vary from like 8 to 35 and are numbered in the opposite direction from the primaries (increasing in number towards the body)
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50
Q

Coverts

A
  • cover calami of remiges
  • help body be more aerodynamic
  • overlap like shingles on a roof
  • flight feathers mostly hidden on closed wing
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51
Q

Why are flight feathers asymmetrical?

A

the leading edge of the feather has a narrow vane to increase stiffness and rigidity and provide lift

flight feathers with coverts combine to make the entire shape of the wing an assymetrical, curved structure to facilitate lift

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52
Q

How are the remiges numbered?

A

Primaries are numbered 1-10 with 10 being the most distal and 1 being the most proximal

Secondaries are numbered 1-n with 1 being the most distal and n being the most proximal

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53
Q

What are the remiges

A

Wing feathers

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54
Q

What are the retrices?

A

Tail feathers

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55
Q

How are the retrices attached?

A

Attached via ligaments to the pygostyle

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56
Q

Are the retrices pennaceous or plumulaceous?

A

Pennaceous

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57
Q

Name the 2 types of pennaceous feathers

A
  1. Flight feathers (retrices/remiges)
  2. Contour feathers
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58
Q

What is the function of the retrices?

A

Steering and landing

Can disrupt airflow to decelerate, or spread/narrow/tilt tail to steer

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59
Q

What are the characteristics of a down feather?

A

No central rachis
Barbules lack barbicels
Plumulaceous
Thermoregulatory function
Reduced or absent rachis

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60
Q

Natal down

A

Occurs in young birds, grows in feather tracts and is eventually replaced with contour feathers

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61
Q

Adult down

A

Occurs all over the body, not just in tracts

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62
Q

What are some characteristics of a semiplume?

A

-No barbicels
-Plumulaceous
-Traps air (thermoregulatory fct)
-The rachis is longer than the longest barb - KEY CHARACTERISTIC

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63
Q

What are some characteristics of a filoplume?

A

-Sensory feather with tuft at the tip of the feather
-hairlike
-touch receptors in the skin next to the feather
-fct theorized to be detecting wind speed and direction

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64
Q

What are some characteristics of a bristle?

A

-sensory feather with tuft at the base
-occur around eyes and bills
-connected to sensory corpuscule at the base
-tactile and protective function (like eyelashes)

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65
Q

Ramus

A

-the main part of the barb
-barbules attach to the ramus, which extends perpendicular to the rachis

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66
Q

What is the function of rictal bristles?

A

To funnel food towards the mouth and to compensate for reduced vision when feeding at night

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67
Q

What is unique about the feathers of a sandgrouse?

A

Males soak up water for chicks to drink out of his belly feathers - like a sponge

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68
Q

What is unique about the feathers of club winged manakins?

A

They rub their wings together to create sounds and court females

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69
Q

How to hummingbirds court females?

A

They do courtship dives that force air through their retrices, making a sound

70
Q

What are the two ways that feathers can have color?

A

Pigment and structure

71
Q

Pigment

A

A naturally occurring substance incorporated into the feather that absorbs some wavelengths and reflects others

72
Q

Structure (referring to color)

A

Typically a melanin layer, overlaid by air bubbles that change the wavelengths of light absorbed and reflected by a feather

73
Q

Melanin

A

Synthesized from AA tyrosine in melanocytes
Can be deposited to form patterns

74
Q

What are the two types of melanin?

A

Eumelanin - brown/grey/black
Phaeomelanin - tans, red-brown, yellow

75
Q

Why is melanin beneficial to birds (besides colors)

A

Melanin increases structural integrity and resists bacterial colonization

76
Q

Carotenoids

A

-Produced by plants and consumed in the diet as beta carotene and lutein and deposited in keratinocytes
-red, orange, and yellow pigments

77
Q

Carotenoids

A

-Produced by plants and consumed in the diet as beta carotene and lutein and deposited in keratinocytes
-red, orange, and yellow pigments

78
Q

Psittacofulvin

A

Parrot specific pigment, derived from carotenoid

79
Q

Porphyrin

A

Chemically related to hemoglobin and liver bile pigments

80
Q

Turacin and turacoveridin

A

Red and green pigments respectively, present in turacos

81
Q

What are the two types of structural color?

A

Non iridescent and iridescent

82
Q

Non iridescent structural color

A
  • same color from every angle
    -air pockets in feathers scatter specific wavelengths
  • larger nanostructure scatters longer wavelengths, making redder colors
  • smaller nanostructure scatters shorter wavelengths, making bluer colors
83
Q

Iridescence

A

-Color changes depending on angle
- arrays of melanomas in beta keratin of the barbules
- made up of many layers of keratin and melanin rodules

84
Q

Can birds use a combination of structural and pigmented colors?

A

Yes - paradise tanager uses structural color and carotenoids in their crowns

85
Q

Could you say with certainly that a feather is white due to its pigment?

A

No - you cannot tell visually for most colors what the source of the color is

86
Q

What weighs more, the feathers or skeleton of a bird?

A

Feathers

87
Q

Pterylae

A

The feather tracts - feathers grow from follicles here

88
Q

Apteria

A

Fatherless areas between tracts

89
Q

Can a feather heal from trauma?

A

No - feathers are not alive and must be replaced

90
Q

Uropygial gland

A

Gland at base of tail that produces preen oil - a substance that is spread over feathers to protect them from wear and parasites

91
Q

Anting

A

Inviting ants to come up in your feathers and eat the parasites

92
Q

Molt

A

Regular, scheduled replacement of feathers

93
Q

Describe molt

A
  1. Natal down
    Pre juvenal molt - grow first set of contours
  2. Juvenal plumage
    1st pre basic molt
  3. 1st basic plumage (sometimes only contour feathers get replaced and the bird can be aged here)
    2nd prebasic molt
  4. Definitive basic plumage
    Prebasic molt
94
Q

Describe molt for a bird that molts twice in a year

A
  1. Natal down
    Prejuvenal molt
  2. Juvenal plumage
    1st prebasic molt
  3. 1st basic plumage
    1st pre alternate molt
  4. 1st alternate plumage
    2nd prebasic molt
  5. Definitive basic plumage
95
Q

Molt limit

A

Occurs when a bird can be aged based on its feathers

Ex) 1st spring indigo buntings

96
Q

How can plumage change without molt?

A

Starling plumage wears down to change color - white spots wear off

Sparrow badge of status shows when feathers wear down

97
Q

Factors that influence frequency of molt

A
  1. Habitat - exposure to sand, sun or wind wears down feathers
  2. Parasite load - wears down feathers faster
  3. Migration - causes wear on feathers
  4. Life history - number of years until sexual maturity
98
Q

Chord

A

Straight line width of an airfoil leading to the trailing edge

99
Q

Camber

A

Convex shape of an airfoil in cross section - greater closer to body than at wingtip

Proximal camber > wingtip

100
Q

Angle of attack

A

Angle at which the leading edge meets the flow of air

101
Q

Bernoulli effect

A

Pressure decreases as speed increases - helps birds achieve flight as air moves over the wing faster than under

102
Q

Newtons 3rd law

A

Camber shape directs air down, causing an equal and opposite force generating lift

103
Q

How does the angle of attack help generate lift?

A

Greater angle of attack = more air directed downward = greater lift

Too much angle, and you stall though

104
Q

Thrust

A

Forward component of lift

105
Q

Downstroke generates…

A

Thrust

106
Q

What is the most efficient speed of flight

A

Intermediate speed

(Faster and slower flight are both more energetically expensive)

107
Q

How do birds generate lift?

A

Wing shape and position

108
Q

What is thrust and how do birds generate it?

A

Forward component of lift and by changing wing position

109
Q

What are the two types of soaring?

A

Thermal and dynamic

110
Q

Thermal soaring

A

Ride rising air with very little energy

111
Q

Dynamic soaring

A

Exploits differences in wind speed caused by waves/ridges

Turn into wind to gain altitude

Gain speed by gliding down

Ex) albatross

112
Q

Flapping

A

Allows each primary to act as an airfoil

On the upstroke, primaries separate to reduce resistance

113
Q

Alula

A

Feathered digit #1, allows birds to control movement of air over the top of the wing to maintain lift and prevent stalling at slow speeds or high angle of attack

  • prevents turbulent flow and promotes laminar flow (keeping air stuck to the wing)

Most useful at slow speeds or during landing

114
Q

What are the two types of intermittent flight?

A
  1. flap glide - reduces power cost at slower speeds
  2. flap bounding - reduces power cost at faster speeds
115
Q

What type of intermittent flight reduces power cost at low speeds?

A

flap gliding

116
Q

What type of intermittent flight reduces power cost at high speed?

A

flap bounding

117
Q

What is unique about hummingbird flight?

A

they produce lift and thrust on the upstroke and on the downstroke

118
Q

What do hovering birds do to prevent stall?

A

extend the alula and spread the tail

119
Q

Wing loading

A

body mass/wing surface area

increased body size = increased wing loading
increased wing loading = increased energy expense
decreased wing loading = fly slower and with less flapping

120
Q

Aspect ratio

A

wingspan/wing surface area

high aspect ratio = high lift, lower drag, and lower maneuverability

low aspect ratio = less lift, less drag, and more maneuverability

121
Q

What are the four broad categories of wing shape?

A
  1. slotted high lift - eagle, RTHA
  2. high aspect ratio - albatrosses and gulls
  3. elliptical wings - crow, grouse, sparrow
  4. high speed wings - falcon, duck, swift
122
Q

Describe a slotted high lift wing in terms of aspect ratio and wing loading

A
  • medium aspect ratio
  • low wing loading
  • notched feathers to reduce drag and generate lift
  • generous use of alula
123
Q

describe a high aspect ratio wing in terms of aspect ratio and wing loading

A
  • high aspect ratio
  • high speed gliding in high wind speeds
  • narrow and unslotted wings
  • moderate wing loading
  • difficult takeoff and not very maneuverable
  • increased lift and increased speed
  • birds spend most of their lives soaring
124
Q

What are the two categories of elliptical wings and what do they do?

A
  • low aspect ratio/low wing loading
  • drag offset by slotting, high maneuverability in dense habitat
  • crow, sparrow, songbirds
  • low aspect ratio/high wing loading
  • good at bursting flight/not great at sustained flight
  • grouse, quail
125
Q

What are some characteristics of high speed wings?

A
  • medium aspect ratio
  • high wing loading
  • pointed wing tips and swept back wings
  • need to flap to generate lift, have good maneuverability in open habitat
  • falcons, swifts, ducks
126
Q

What are the names of the two muscles that facilitate flight and are attached to the keel?

A

the pectoralis and the supracoracoideus

127
Q

Which flight muscle is responsible for the downstroke?

A

the pectoralis

128
Q

Which flight muscle is the largest in most species?

A

the pectoralis

129
Q

Which flight muscle is responsible for the upstroke?

A

the supracoracoideus

130
Q

Which birds have a large supracoracoideus?

A

hummingbirds and penguins

131
Q

arboreal theory

A

flight began with gliding from tree - tree

ie) originated with the arboreal lifestyle

132
Q

cursorial theory

A

elongated limbs and leaping made it easier to catch prey

ie) flight benefits predation

133
Q

wing assisted incline running

A

flying evolved gradually to assist with climbing up inclines

134
Q

What are the three different theories for how flight developed?

A

arboreal theory, cursorial theory, and wing assisted incline running

135
Q

endotherm

A

body heat is produced endogenously

ex) mammals, birds

136
Q

ectotherm

A

relies on the environment to generate body heat

137
Q

polikotherm

A

body heat fluctuates with the environment

138
Q

homeotherm

A

maintain their body temperature within a narrow range

139
Q

all _______ are homeotherms, while some _______ are polikotherms and some are homeotherms

A

endotherms, ectotherms

140
Q

what are some costs and benefits of endothermy?

A

costs - energy expensive, prone to overheating, higher protein requirements

benefits - active at many temperatures, increases speed of nerve impulses, increases muscle fiber contraction strength, increases endurance

141
Q

basal metabolic rate (BMR)

A

the minimal energy requirement of resting, non-stressed birds at neutral temperatures

142
Q

does BMR scale with size?

A

no, the larger the bird, the lower the BMR

ie) the ratio of BMR:size is larger for small birds and smaller for large birds

143
Q

What types of activites increase the metabolic rate

A

extreme temperatures, reproduction, molting and flight all have metabolic costs

144
Q

thermoneutral zone

A

the temperature range within which extra energy is not expended to thermoregulate

145
Q

lower critical temperature

A

the coldest it can be before a bird needs to start doing something to thermoregulate

146
Q

upper critical temperature

A

the hottest it can be before a bird needs to start thermoregulating

147
Q

what happens at temperatures above the upper critical temperature (UCT)?

A

evaporative cooling

148
Q

What happens at temperatures below the lower critical temperature?

A

shivering occurs

149
Q

what are some things birds can do to thermoregulate in cold temperatures (6)

A
  1. fluff contour feathers to trap air
  2. tuck extremeties close to body
  3. change the microclimate (burrow into snow, get close to buildings)
  4. huddling
  5. communal roosting
  6. increase the metabolism
150
Q

what is the process by which birds become accustomed to more extreme environments (like the cold)

A

acclimation

151
Q

torpor

A

dropping of body temp to closely match the environmental temp, usually down to like 8c

152
Q

what are some costs and benefits of torpor?

A

costs
- cannot respond to threats
- time and energy investment in waking up from torpor

benefits
- conserve energy

153
Q

What is countercurrent heat exchange?

A

blood vessels carrying warm blood are closely associated with blood vessels carrying cold blood

blood returning to the body is warmed and blood going to the feet is cooled

in this way, the feet are kept just above freezing and heat is conserved

this system can be bypassed in hot environments to lose heat in the legs

154
Q

How do birds use facultative hyperthermia?

A

Birds use facultative hyperthermia to reduce heat gain from the environment, reduce water loss and conserve energy

raising the body temperature more than one or two degrees celcius is not good because it denatures protiens and can be fatal

155
Q

What are some behavioral ways that birds can reduce their body temperatures

A
  1. reduce activity during hottest times
  2. find a better microclimate (think grackles under cars)
  3. soar at high altitudes to find cool air
  4. panting and gular fluttering
  5. ruffle feathers to expose apteria (bare skin between pterylae - feather tracts)
  6. expose legs
156
Q

What are some ways that birds dissipate heat? (not behavioral)

A
  • beak dissipates heat
  • evaporative cooling
157
Q

Allen’s rule

A

appendages of endotherms are smaller relative to body size in colder climates

158
Q

What size of bird is more vulnerable to heat stress

A

larger birds

159
Q

Bergman’s rule

A

animals are larger in cold climates and small in warm climates

160
Q

House finches spread across the united states in a short period of time. What rule can we use to predict the body size these house finches?

A

bergmann’s rule

161
Q

What are the differences between mammal respiration and bird respiration

A

mammals
- diaphragm
- chest cavity at lower pressure than the environment
- tidal breathing
- 50% volume inhaled does not participate in gas exchange

birds
- no diaphragm
- air sacs store and pump air
- air flows in a single direction
- air intake on inspiration and expiration

162
Q

how many air sacs are there?

A

4 pairs of air sacs, one unpaired and smaller air sacs in the bones

163
Q

what is the function of the air sacs?

A

enhance airflow
dissipate body heat during flight
cushion internal organs during flight
may be used in mating displays (frigatebird)
gas exchange DOES NOT OCCUR

164
Q

if birds do not have a diaphragm, how do they breathe?

A

via the movement of the ribs and sternum to change the size of the thoracic cavity

165
Q

what is the path of air through a bird’s respiratiory system?

A
  1. nares
  2. trachea
  3. posterior air sacs
  4. lungs (primary bronci/mesobronchi -> secondary bronchi -> tertiary bronchi (parabronchi))

parabronchi are the site of gas exchange

166
Q

Describe what happens as air moves through a bird’s respiratory system?

A
  1. inhalation - air moves to posterior air sacs
  2. exhalation - o2 rich air moves to lungs for gas exchange
  3. inhalation - co2 rich air from lungs moves to anterior air sacs
  4. exhalation - air is expelled from anterior air sacs
167
Q

What are the functions of a bird’s circulatory system?

A
  1. distribute food from the digestive tract to the body
  2. distribute O2 from the lungs to the body
  3. remove CO2 from tissues and get rid of it
  4. remove wastes
  5. dissipation and conservation of heat
168
Q

If you control for body size, what is the relationship between mammal and bird heart rate/heart size/stroke volume

A

heart rate - mammalian heart rates are typically faster than a bird’s

heart size - hearts of birds are 41% larger than mammals when controlling for body size

stroke volume - mammalian stroke volume is smaller, bird stroke volume is larger

169
Q

What is the difference between white and dark meat?

A

‘dark’ meat has more myoglobin due to sustained muscle activity (cells use sustained aerobic cell respiration)

170
Q

Could we expect the breast meat from a migratory bird to be the same as the breast meat from a domestic terrestrial bird?

A

No, the breast meat of a terrestrial bird is likely to be ‘white meat’ and have less myoglobin

the breast meat of a migratory bird is designed for endurance/sustained activity, thus is will have more myoglobin and be ‘dark meat’

171
Q

What does a salt gland do?

A

in seafaring birds, the salt glands allow birds to get rid of excess salt from the nares instead of relying on the kidneys

these birds must drink salt water to survive

ornithology (4 decks)

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