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Developmental Biology > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Define

Development

A

It’s the set of processes by which a multicellular organism generates a complex phenotype of heterogenous cells arranged in a particular size a shape; the route by which genotype and environment produce phenotype

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2
Q

Define

Zygote

A

A fertilized egg cell

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3
Q

Define

Embryo

A

A developing organism prior to birth or hatching; usually refers to the early stages of development in humans

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4
Q

Define

Embryology

Ology=the study of

A

The study of animal development from fertilization to hatching or birth

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5
Q

Why is Aristotle important to developmental biology?

A

First known embryologist; undertook the first known study of comparative developmental anatomy; first figured out the functions of the mammalian placenta and umbilical cord

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6
Q

Define

Oviparity

EX: birds, amphibians, and most invertebrates

A

Young hatch from eggs ejected by the mother

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7
Q

Define

Viviparity

EX: placental mammals

A

Young are nourished in and born from the mother’s body rather than hatched from an egg

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8
Q

Define

Ovoviviparity

EX: some reptiles and sharks

A

Young hatch from eggs held within the mother’s body where they continue to develop for a period of time

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9
Q

Who concluded that all animals originate from eggs?

A

William Harvey

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10
Q

How did William Harvey progress embryology?

A

Saw the blastoderm of a chick embryo; first to notice “islands” of blood tissue form before the heart does; suggested that amniotic fluid functions as a shock absorber for the embryo

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11
Q

Who published the first microscopic account of chick development and when?

A

Marcello Malpighi in 1672

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12
Q

Define

Pattern Formation

A

The set of processes by which embryonic cells form ordered spatial arrangements of differentiated tissues

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13
Q

Define

Differentiation

A

The process by which an unspecialized cell becomes specialized into one of the many cell types that make up the body

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14
Q

Define

Morphogenesis

A

The organization of the cells of the body into function structures via coordinated cell growth, cell migration, and cell death

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15
Q

What makes an organism a good “model” for answering Developmental questions?

A

It must be possible to house a significant amount of breed adults in the lab; the time from embryo to reproductive adult has to be short, however the embryonic period has to be long enough for researchers to study it; they have to be able to see and work with the embryo; the organism needs to relate to the question they are asking; the organism needs to be appropriate for teh experiment approach needed to answer the question

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16
Q

Define

Fertilization

A

Fusion of male and female gametes followed by fusion of the haploid gamete nuclei to restore the full complement of chromosomes characteristic of the species and initiation in the egg cytoplasm of those reactions that permit development to proceed

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17
Q

Define

Gametes

Ex: Egg/sperm

A

A specialized reproductive cell through which sexually reproducing parents pass chromosomes to their offspring

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18
Q

Define

Pronuclei

A

The male and female haploid nuclei within a fertilized egg that fuse to form the diploid nucleus of the zygote

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19
Q

Define

Genome

A

The complete DNA sequence of an individual organism

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20
Q

Define

Cleavage

A

A series of rapid mitotic cell divisions following fertilization in many early embryos; cleavage divides the embryo without increasing its mass

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21
Q

Define

Blastomeres

A

A cleavage-stage cell resulting from mitosis

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22
Q

Define

Blastula

A

Early stage embryo consisting of a sphere of cells surrounding an inner fluid-filled cavity, the blastocoel.

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23
Q

Define

Gastrulation

A

A process involving movement of the blastomeres of the embryo relative to one another resulting in the formation of the three germ layers of the embryo

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24
Q

Define

Gastrula

A

A stage of the embryo following gastrulation that contains the three germ layers that will interact to generate the organs of the body

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25
Q

Define

Germ Layers

A

One of the three layers of the embryo; ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm, in triploblastic organisms, or of the two layers, ectoderm and endoderm, in diploblastic organisms, generated by the process of gastrulation, that will form all of the tissues of the body exceot for the germ cells

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26
Q

Define

Organogenesis

A

Interactions between, and rearrangement of cells of the three germ layers to produce tissues and organs.

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27
Q

Define

Anterior-Posterior Axis

A

Primary body axis, defines the head verus the tail; sometimes used in reference to the limb to refer to the thumb (anterior)-pinkie (posterior) axis

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28
Q

Dorsal-ventral axis

A

Plane defining the back (dorsum) versus the belly (ventrum). When referring to the limb, this axis refers to the knuckles (dorsal) and palms (ventral)

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29
Q

Define

Right-Left axis

A

The body axis that specifies the lateral sides of the body

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30
Q

Define

Larva

A

The sexually immature stage of an organism, often of significantly different appearance than the adult and frequently the stage that lives the longest and is used for feeding or dispersal

31
Q

Define

Germ cells

A

A group of cells set aside for reproductive function; germ cells become the cells of the gonads that undergo meiotic cell divisions to generate the gametes; contribute to the formation of a new generation

32
Q

Define

Somatic Cells

A

Cells that make up the body i.e., all cells in the organism that are not germ cells; gives rise to the individual body

33
Q

Define

Gametogenesis

A

The production of gametes

34
Q

Identify

What cells does the Ectoderm form? What part of the embryo is it?

A

Produces epidermis and forms the brain and nervous system; covers outside of embryo

35
Q

Identify

What cells does the Mesoderm give rise to? Where is it on the embryo?

A

In between the ectoderm and endoderm; generates blood, heart, kidney, gonads, bones, muscles, and connective tissues

36
Q

Identify

What cells does the Endoderm give rise to? Where is it on the embryo?

A

Produces the epithelium of the digestive tube and its associated organs, including the lungs; on the inside of the embryo

37
Q

Define

Blastopore

A

The invagination point where gastrulation begins. In deuterostomes, this marks the site of the anus. In protostomes, this marks the site of the mouth

38
Q

Define

Neurula

A

Refers to an embryo during neurulation (i.e., while the neural tube is forming)

39
Q

Define

Neural tube

A

The embryonic precursor to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)

40
Q

Explain

What initiates amphibian metamorphosis, and what controls the speed?

A

thyroid hormones initiate metamorphosis, and environmental pressures control the speed at which it occurs

40
Q

Define

Somites

A

Segmental blocks of mesoderm formed from the mesoderm next to the notochord; each contain major compartments: the sclerotome, which forms the vertebrae and ribs, and the dermomyotome, which goes on to form dermatome and myotome. The dermatoe forms the dermis of the back; the myotome forms musculature of the back, rib cage, and ventral body. Additional muscle originators detach from the lateral edge of the dermomyotome and migrate into the limbs to form the muscles of the fore and hindlimbs.

40
Q

Define

Meiosis

A

Division process that occurs only in germ cells, to reduce the number of chromosomes to a haploid complement. Differs from mitosis in that germ cells undergo two cell divisions without an intervening period of DNA replication, and homologous chromosomes pair together and recombine genetic material.

40
Q

Define

Alternation of generations

A

In plants, a life cycle in which a haploid multicelluar gamete-producing stage (the gametophyte) alternates with a diploid multicellular spore-producing stage (the sporophyte)

41
Q

Explain

How is the development of plant embryos different from animal embryos? How is it the same?

A

Plant embryos develop three cell layers, but they don’t rearrange through gastrulation-like movements. Plant embryos also pause between the completion of embryogenesis and germination and growth, which can be extremely long

42
Q

Define

Meristems

A

Tissue in plants that contains stem cells that are actively dividing. This is where the production of new plant tissue occurs. Different types of meristems give rise to different structures of the plant. The two main ones are the shoot and root apical meristems

43
Q

Explain

Why is it important that plant zygotes divide asymmetrically?

A

The smaller apical cell generates the actual embryo, where the basal cell becomes the suspensor that supports the embryo; sets up the primary axis of the embryo

44
Q

Define

Dermal tissue

A

Tissue that underlies the epidermis in animals and that makes up the outer layer of plants

45
Q

Define

Ground tissue

A

In plants, all tissue that isn’t dermal or vascular; functions primarily in storage, support, and photosynthesis, and includes filler tissue called parenchyma and the more supportive collenchyma and sclerenchyma

46
Q

Define

Vascular tissue

A

The conducting tissues in vascular plants that transport fluids and nutrients

47
Q

Define

Xylem

A

In vascular plants, the conduits for bringing water and nutrients upward through the plant

48
Q

Define

Phloem

A

In vascular plants, the conduits that carry sugars produced by photosynthesis, along with other metabolites, from sources to sinks; primarily from the leaves to the nonphotosynthetic parts of the plant

49
Q

Define

Epithelial cells

A

Cells that are tightly linked together to form a sheet or tube (an epithelium) with little extracellular matrix

50
Q

Define

Mesenchymal cells

A

Unconnected or loosely connected cells that can act as independent migratory units

51
Q

Identify

What cellular processes bring about morphogenesis?

A

Direction and number of cell divisions, Cell migration, cell shape changes, cell growth and death, and changes in the composition of the cell membrane or secreted products

52
Q

Define

Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition

A

An orderly series of events where the cells of an epithelial sheet or structures are transformed into migratory mesenchymal cells. In this transition, a polarized stationary epithelial cell, which normally interacts with basement membrane through its basal surface, becomes a migratory mesenchymal cell that can invade tissues and form organs in new places. The converse is the mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition (MET), which occurs when mesenchymal cells coalesce and form epithelial structures

53
Q

Define

Apoptosis

A

Programmed cell death. Apoptosis is an active process that prunes unneeded structures, controlls the number of cells in particular tissues, and sculpts complex organs; rapid apoptosis occurs when epithelial cells lose their attachment to the extracellular matrix

54
Q

Identify

Which of these go through gastrulation? Animals, Plants, Fungi

A

Animals

55
Q

Define

Epigenesis

A

The view supported by Aristotle and William Harvey that the organs of the embryo are formed from scratch at each generation

56
Q

Define

What do the terms “Find it”, “Lose it”, and “Move it” mean?

A

Find it: association between one thing and another; Lose it: If cells destined to form limbs are removed, limbs won’t form; Move it: Are the cells moved sufficient for the process that carry out?

57
Q

Define

Fate Map

A

Diagrams based on having followed cell lineages from specific regions of the embryo in order to “map” larval or adult structures onto the region of the embryo from which they arose. The superimposition of a map of “what is to be” onto a structure that hase yet to develop into these organs

58
Q

Define

Vital Dyes

A

Stains used to label living cells without killing them. When applied to embryos, vital dyes have been used to follow cell migration during development and generate fate maps of specific regions of the embryo

59
Q

Define

Fluorescent dyes

A

Compounds, such as fluorescein and green fluorescent protein (GFP), that emit bright light at a specific wavelength when excited with ultraviolet light

60
Q

Define

Chimeric embryos

A

Embryo made from tissues of more than one genetic source

61
Q

Define

Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP)

A

A gene that is widely used as a transgenic label for cells in developmental and other research, since cells that express GFP are easily identified by a bright green glow

62
Q

Define

Transgene

A

Exogenous DNA or gene introduced through experimental manipulation into a cell’s genome

63
Q

Define

Malformations

A

Abnormalities caused by genetic events such as gene mutations, chromosomal aneuploidies, and translocations

64
Q

Define

Syndrome

A

Greek for “happening together”. Several malformations or pathologies that occur concurrently. Genetically based syndromes are caused either by (1) a chromosomal event (such as trisomy 21, or Down syndrome) where several genes are deleted or added, or (2) by one gene having many effects

65
Q

Define

Disruptions

A

Abnormality or congenital defect caused by exogenous agents (teratogens) such as plants, chemicals, viruses, radiation, or hyperthermia

66
Q

Define

Teratogens

A

Exogenous agents that cause disruptions in development resulting in teratogenesis, the formation of congenital defects

67
Q

Explain

What are Von Baer’s laws of Vertebrate embryology?

A
  1. The general features of a broad group of animals appear earlier in development than do the specialized features of a smaller subgroup
  2. Less general characters develop from the more general, until finally the most specialized appear
  3. The embryo of a given species, instead of passing through the adult stages of lower animals, departs more and more from them
  4. Therefore, the early embryo of a higher animal is never like a lower animal, but only like its early embryo
68
Q

Define

Phylotypic stage

A

The stage that typifies a phylum, such as the late neurula or pharyngula of vertebrates, and which appears to be relatively invariant and to constrain its evolution

69
Q

Identify

What connects the invertebrate and vertebrate chordates?

A

The notochord

70
Q

Define

Homologous

A

Structures and/or their respective components who similarity arises from their being derived from a common ancestral structure

71
Q

Define

Analogous

A

Structures and/or their respective components whose similarity arises from their performing a similar function rather than their arising from a common ancestor

Developmental Biology (1 decks)

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