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Ecology > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

the scientfic study of the abundance and distribution of organisms in relation to other organisms and environmental condition

A

ecology

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2
Q

true or false: the notion of “the balance of nature” is ecologically valid

A

false

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3
Q

what does the balance of nature assume

A

the system is stable or static and all species are equal

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4
Q

the system of balance of nature is

A

dynamic

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5
Q

ideas of ecology (4)

A

ecological interactions
scale matters
energy flows, nutrients cycle
evolution

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6
Q

qualities of ecological interactions

A

stabilizing
amplifying
vary substantially

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7
Q

levels of ecological organization (smallest to largest)

A

individual
population
community
ecosystem
landscape
biosphere

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8
Q

the unit of natural selection

A

individual

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9
Q

the unit of evolution

A

population

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10
Q

states body size should increase with latitude

A

Bergmann’s Rule

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11
Q

composition and configuration of land uses can affect ecological processes

A

landscape ecology

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12
Q

connect all parts of the biosphere

A

biotic and abiotic processes

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13
Q

the range of abiotic and biotic conditions an organism can tolerate (ex: temperature and humidity, food it can eat)

A

niche

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14
Q

each species has a distinct

A

niche

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15
Q

the place, or physical setting, in which an organism lives

A

habitat

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16
Q

consumers of dead matter

A

scavengers, detritivores, and decomposers

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17
Q

consume dead animals (ex: vultures)

A

scavengers

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18
Q

break down dead organic matter and waste products (detritus) into smaller particles (ex: millipedes and dung beetles)

A

detritivores

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19
Q

break down dead organic material into simpler elements and compounds that can be recycled through the ecosystem (ex: many species of mushrooms)

A

decomposers

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20
Q

interactions in which two species live in close association and one species receives a benefit, while the other experiences neither a benefit nor a cost

A

commensalism (+/0)

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21
Q

a close relationship between two different types of organisms

A

symbiotic relationship

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22
Q

when two species interact in a way such that each species receives benefits from the other

A

mutualism (+/+)

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23
Q

an interaction with negative effects on both species that require the same limited resource to grow, survive, and reproduce

A

competition (-/-)

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24
Q

organisms that consume producers, such as plants and algae

A

herbivores (+/-)

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25
Q

a disease causing microbe

A

pathogen

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26
Q

organisms that live in or on another organism, called the host; individual ones of these rarely kill its host

A

parasites (parasitism +/-)

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27
Q

organisms that kill or entirely consume another individual (prey)

A

predators (+/-)

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28
Q

a special kind of predator that lives within and consumes the tissues of a living host, eventually killing it

A

parasitoids

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29
Q

organisms that use photosynthesis to convert solar energy into organic compounds or use chemosynthesis to convert chemical energy into organic compounds

ex: chemosynthetic archaea and bacteria, cyanobacteria, most algae, most plants

A

producers

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30
Q

organisms that obtain their energy from other organisms

ex: fungi, bacteria, herbivores, and carnivores

A

heterotrophs

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31
Q

species that obtain their sources of carbon through a mixed approach of obtaining their energy

ex: carnivorous plants that obtain their energy both form photosynthesis and from consuming invertebrates, algae

A

mixotrophs

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32
Q

true or false: species evolve in isolation

A

false

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33
Q

a change in frequency of genes in a population through differential survival and reproduction of individuals that possess certain phenotypes

A

natural selection

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34
Q

what does natural selection depend on (3)

A

-individual organisms vary in their traits
-parental traits are inherited by their offspring
-the variation in traits cause some individuals to experience higher fitness

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35
Q

the survival and reproduction of an individual

A

fitness

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36
Q

phenotypes are determined by the interaction of

A

the organism’s genotype with the environment in which it lives

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37
Q

a change in the genetic composition of a population over time

A

evolution

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38
Q

an organisms behavior, morphology, or physiology

A

phenotype

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39
Q

the set of genes an organism carries

A

genotype

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40
Q

when the gains and losses of ecological systems are in balance

A

dynamic steady state

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41
Q

how are dynamic steady states achieved on an individual basis

A

assimilated food and energy must balance energy expenditure and metabolic breakdown of tissues

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42
Q

how are dynamic steady states achieved on a population level

A

population increases with births and immigration, and it decreases with death and emigration

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43
Q

how are dynamic steady states achieved in a community

A

the number of species living in a community decreases when a species becomes extinct and increases when a new species colonizes the area

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44
Q

how are dynamic steady states achieved in ecosystems and landscapes

A

energy and matter enter and leave ecosystems and move among multiple ecosystems in landscapes

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45
Q

how are dynamic steady states achieved in biospheres

A

the biosphere receives energy from the Sun, and this gain of energy is balanced by heat energy radiated by earth back out into space

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46
Q

energy cannot be created or destroyed, only can be converted into different forms

A

the law of conservation of energy (first law of thermodynamics)

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47
Q

matter cannot be created or destroyed, but can only change form

A

the law of conservation of matter

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48
Q

life builds on the physical properties and chemical reactions of

A

matter

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49
Q

this approach to ecology is concerned with the largest scale in the hierarchy of ecological systems

tackles the movements of air and water–and the energy and chemical elements that they contain–over earth’s surface

includes all the ecosystems and landscapes on earth

A

biosphere

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50
Q

all transformations within the biosphere are internal with what two exceptions?

A

the energy that enters from the Sun and the energy that is lost to space

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51
Q

this approach to ecology is concerned with the movement of energy, matter, and individuals between ecosystems

includes multiple ecosystems that are connected by the movement of individuals, populations, matter, and energy (ex: aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems); can also include patchworks of different communities

A

landscapes

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52
Q

this approach typically focuses on the movement of energy and matter between physical and biological components of the ecosystem

composed of one or more communities of living organisms interacting with their nonliving physical and chemical environments, which include water, air, temperature, sunlight, and nutrients

A

ecosystem

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53
Q

composed of all populations living together in a particular area and interact with each other in various ways, influencing the number of individuals in each population

this approach is concerned with the understanding of the diversity and relative abundances of different kinds of organisms living together in the same place

A

community

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54
Q

consists of individuals of the same species in a living area

examines variation over time and space in the number of individuals, the density of individuals, and the composition of individuals (sex ratio, distribution of individuals among different age classes, and the genetic makeup of a population

A

population

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55
Q

historically defined as a group of organisms that can potentially interbreed naturally with each other and produce fertile offspring; current research demonstrates that no single definition can be applied to all organisms

A

species

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56
Q

5 distinct properties of populations

A

geographic range (distribution of a population)
abundance
density
change in size
composition

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57
Q

the extent of land or water within which a population lives

A

distribution of a population

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58
Q

refers to the total number of individuals living within a defined area

A

abundance

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59
Q

refers to the number of individuals per unit of area

A

density

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60
Q

refers to increases and decreases in the number of individuals in an area over time

A

change in size

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61
Q

describes the makeup of the population (sex or age)

A

composition

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62
Q

the most fundamental unit of ecology

has a membrane, or other covering, across which it exchanges energy and materials with its environment

emphasizes the way in which an individual’s morphology, physiology, and behavior enable it to survive in its environment (as well as its adaptations)

A

individual

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63
Q

may be an individual, a population or species, a community, an ecosystem, a landscape, or the entire biosphere

entities that have their own internal processes and interact with their surroundings

A

an ecological system

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64
Q

the scientific study of the interactions among organsims and the environment (biotic and abiotic)

A

ecology

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65
Q

refers to the typical atmospheric conditions that occur throughout the year, measured over many years

A

climate

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66
Q

refers to the variation in temperature and precipitation over periods of hours or days

A

weather

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67
Q

the 600km thick layer of air that surrounds the planet and reflects about 1/3 of the solar radiation emitted toward Earth

A

atmosphere

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68
Q

the process of solar radiation striking Earth, being converted to infrared radiation, and being absorbed and re-emitted by atmospheric gases

A

greenhouse effect

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69
Q

what are the most prevalent greenhouse gases

A

carbon dioxide and water

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70
Q

graphs that plot the average monthly temperature and precipitation of a specific location on Earth

A

climate diagrams

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71
Q

for every 10 degree Celsius increase in average monthly temperature corresponds to a ________ increase in monthly precipitation

A

2cm increase

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72
Q

if the temperature growth line goes below the precipitation line in a climate diagram which factor constrains plant growth?

A

temperature

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73
Q

why are cold regions with high rainfall rare?

A

because water doesn’t evaprate rapidly at low temperatures and because the atmosphere in cold regions contain very little water vapor

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74
Q

what are the major producers in aquatic ecosystems

A

algae

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75
Q

how do we categorize biomes in terrestrial ecosystems

A

by the dominant plant forms that are associated with distinct patterns of seasonoal temperatures and precipitation

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76
Q

geographic regions that contain communities composed of organisms with similar adaptations

A

biomes

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77
Q

a phenomenon in which two species descended from unrelated ancestors and look similar because they have evolved under similar selective forces

A

convergent evolution

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78
Q

take into account the coldest temperatures that occur during the winter and follwo the minimum temperature typically reached in locations throughout North America

A

plant hardiness zones

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79
Q

what are the patterns assessed in plant hardiness zones

A

latitude
coastlines
elevation

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80
Q

a region with dry conditions found on the leeward side of a mountain range as a result of humid winds from the ocean, causing precipitation on the windward side

A

rain shadows

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80
Q

what happens when wind blowing inland from the ocean encounters coastal mountains

A

the mountains force the air upward, which causes cooling, condensation, and precipitation

it then descends the other side of the mountain when the air is warm and dry and creates relatively warm arid environments called rain shadows

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81
Q

factors that can affect regional and local climates

A
  • proximity to coasts
  • continental land area
  • rain shadows
  • plant hardiness zones
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82
Q
  • a global pattern of surface- and deep-water currents that flow as a result of variations in temperature and salinity, causing the density of water to change
  • responsible for the movement of great masses of water between the ocean basins
A

thermohaline circulation

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82
Q

how do water vapor emissions come about

A

large bodies of water, the surface of the land, and the leaves of plants

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83
Q

how do carbon dioxide emissions come about

A

decomposition, respiration of organisms, and volcanic eruptions

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84
Q

how do methane emissions come about

A

anaerobic decomposition

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85
Q

how do nitrous oxide emissions come about

A

wet soils and low-oxygen regions of water bodies

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86
Q

where does ozone come from

A

ultraviolet radiation breaking apart oxygen molecules in the atmosphere and causing each molecule to combine with another oxygen molecule

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87
Q

the differences in temperature around the globe are a result of

A

how much solar radiation strikes the surface of Earth at a given location

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88
Q

what are the factors in determining how much solar radiation strikes the surface of Earth at a given location

A
  • the path and angle of the sun
  • seasonal heating of earth
  • formation of atmospheric currents
  • coriolis effect
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89
Q

at the equinoxes, where receives the greatest amount of solar radiation

A

equator

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90
Q

what factors dictate why the equator receives the greatest amount of solar radiation at the equinoxes

A
  • the distance that sunlight must pass through Earth’s atmosphere
  • the angle at which the Sun’s rays hit Earth
  • and the reflectivity of Earth’s surface
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91
Q

the fraction of solar energy reflected by an object

A

albedo

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92
Q

what colored objects reflect a higher precentage of solar energy

A

light colored objects

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93
Q

what explains the general pattern of declining temperatures as we move from the equator to the poles

A

unequal heating of the earth

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94
Q

where the sun is at the June solstice

A

tropic of Cancer

(23.5 degrees N latitude)

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95
Q

where the sun is located at the December solstice

A

Tropic of Capricorn

(23.5 degrees S latitude)

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96
Q

the circulation patterns of air between the surface of Earth and the atmosphere, and play a major role in the location of tropical rainforests, deserts, and grasslands throughout the world

A

atmospheric currents

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97
Q

what is the friving force behind atmospheric currents

A

the upward movement of air

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98
Q

the circulation cells of air between the equator and 30 degrees N or 30 degrees S latitudes

A

Hadley cells

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99
Q

the area where two Hadley cells converge and cause large amounts of precipitation

A

intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)

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100
Q

what does intense sunlight at the solar equator cause

A

drives Hadley Cells and the ITCZ, causing warmed air to rise and precipitation to be released in the form of rain

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101
Q

true or false:

the latitude of the ITCZ does not move throughout the year

A

false

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102
Q

at these latitudes, air rises up into the atmsophere and drops moisture

A

60 degrees N and 60 degrees south

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103
Q

the atmospheric currents that move air between 60 degrees and 90 degrees latitudes

A

polar cells

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104
Q
  • located between Hadley cells and Polar cells from the latitudes of approx 30 degrees to 60 degrees latitude
  • areas of atmospheric currents that lack distinct patterns
A

Ferrel cells

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105
Q

why is the speed of rotation faster at the Equator

A

because the circumferene of the planet at the equator is much larger than its circumference near the poles

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106
Q

the deflection of an object’s path due to the rotation of Earth is known as

A

the Coriolis Effect

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107
Q

Hadley cells north of the equator move air along the surface from

A

north to south

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108
Q

winds that move from the northeast to the southwest

A

northeast trade winds

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109
Q

winds that move from the southeast to the northwest

A

southeast trade winds

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110
Q
  • wind that moves away from the equator and toward the poles, only to be deflected by the Coriolis effect
  • occurs in the latitudes between the Hadley cells and the Polar cells
A

westerlies

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111
Q

what factors affect ocean currents

A
  • unequal heating
  • coriolis effects
  • predominant wind directions
  • the topography of ocean basins
  • differences in salinity
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112
Q

the periodic changes in winds and ocean currents in the South Pacific, causing weather changes throughout much of the world

A

El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

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113
Q

in the atmoshere when the normal difference in air pressure reverses and the equatorial winds weaken and can even reverse direction

A

Southern Oscillation

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114
Q

what effect does an El Niño year have in North America

A

it brings cooler, wetter, and often stormy weather to the Southern US and northern Mexico and warm, dry conditions to the northern US and southern Canada

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115
Q
  • an event in which equatorial winds blow much stronger to the west and all the effects of the El Niño event are reversed
  • regions that become hotter and drier during the El Niño event are reversed
A

La Niña

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116
Q
  • any upward movement of ocean water
  • occurs in locations along continents where surface currents move away from the coastline
A

upwelling

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117
Q

water that is rich in nutrients

A

deep water

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118
Q

where are strong upwelling zones located

A

on the western coasts of continents where gyres move surface currents toward the equator and then veer from the continents

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119
Q

tropical waters ________ as they warm

A

expand

120
Q

a large water circulation pattern between continents

A

gyre

121
Q

gyres move in which direction in the Northern hemisphere

A

clockwise

122
Q

typically streams and rivers, characterized by flowing fresh water

A

lotic systems

123
Q

a band of terrestrial vegetation influenced by seasonal flooding and elevated water tables

A

riparian zone

124
Q

downstream, what happens to water?

A

the water flows more slowly, becomes warmer, and richer in nutrients

125
Q

qualities of small streams

A
  • shaded
  • nutrient poor
  • limits productivity of algae and other photosynthetic organisms
126
Q

much of the organic content of streams depend on … inputs of organic matter, such as leaves, that come from outside the system

A

allocthonous

127
Q

in large rivers, a higher proportion of the organic inputs are …, meaning they are produced from inside the ecosystem by algae and aquatic plants

A

autochthonous

128
Q

what happens to rivers as they progress from their source?

A

they typically become
* wider
* slower-moving
* more heavily laden with nutrients
* more exposed to direct sunlight
* and accumulate sediments that are washed in from the land and carried downstream

129
Q

downsides of dams to lotic systems

A
  • alter water temperature and rates of sedimentation
  • destroy the habitat for fish and other aquatic organismss
  • water released downstream from dams often has low concentrations of dissolved oxygen
  • changes the natural seasonal cycles of flooding that are necessary for maintaining many kinds of riparian habitats on floodplains
  • disrupt the natural movement of aquatic organisms upstream and downstream, fragmenting river systems and isolating populations
130
Q

an aquatic biome that is smaller than a lake and is characterized by nonflowing fresh water with some area of water that is too deep for pants to rise above the water’s surface

A

pond

131
Q

an aquatic biome that is larger than a pond and is characterized by nonflowing freshwater with some area of water that is too deep for plants to rise above the water’s surface

A

lake

132
Q

ecological zones of lakes

A
  • littoral zone
  • limnetic/pelagic zone
  • profundal zone
  • benthic zone
133
Q

the shallow are around the edge of a lake or pond containing rooted vegetation

A

littoral zone

134
Q

the open water beyond the littoral zone where the dominant photosynthetic organisms are floating algae or phytoplankton

A

limnetic/pelagic zone

135
Q
  • doesn’t receive sunlight due to depth
  • absence of photosynthesis as well as the presence of bacteria that decompose the detritus at the bottom of the lake, cause this zone to have very low concentrations of oxygen
A

profundal zone

136
Q

the sediments at the bottom of lakes and ponds that provide habitats for burrowing animals and microorganisms

A

benthic zone

137
Q

surface water in a lake or pond that has a warmer temperature than deeper water

A

epilimnion

138
Q
  • a middle depth of water that experiences a rapid change in temperature over a relatively short distance in depth
  • serves as a barrier to mixing between the epilimnion and the hypolimnion
A

thermocline

139
Q

deeper water that has cooler temperatures than the epilimnion

A

hypolimnion

140
Q

a shallow narrow channel of fast-flowing fresh water

A

stream

141
Q

a wide channel of slow-flowing fresh water

A

river

142
Q

small head water streams

A

1st order streams

143
Q

1st order + 1st order =

A

2nd order

144
Q

2nd order + 1st order =

A

2nd order

145
Q

2nd order + 2nd order =

A

3rd order

146
Q

water achieves his highest density at one temp

A

4 degrees Celsius

147
Q

how do adaptations of aquatic organisms often exploit the density of water

A

oil droplets, swim bladders, gas filled bulbs

148
Q

the thickness of a fluid that causes objects to encounter resistance as they move through it

A

viscosity

149
Q

what can affect the ability of plants and algae to photosynthesize

A

declining light intensities with increased water depth

150
Q

what is necessary for building most compounds found in organisms

A

large amounts of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen

151
Q

the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane

A

osmosis

152
Q

the force with which an aqueous solution attracts water by osmosis, expressed in megapascals (MPa) and depends on solute concentration

A

osmotic potential

153
Q

what determines the osmotic potential of body fluids

A

solutes

154
Q

the mechanism that organisms use to maintain a proper solute balance

A

osmoregulation

155
Q

freshwater animals are said to be _…_____ compare to their environment

A

hyperosmotic

156
Q

saltwater organisms are said to be … compared to their environment

A

hyposmotic

157
Q

how do freshwater fish respond to an influx of water

A

eliminating the excess water through their urine and add solutes to their bloodstreams using their gills

158
Q

how do saltwater fish replace a loss of water

A

saltwater animals drink large amounts of salt water and release only small amounts of water, to counteract the accompanying iinflux of solutes, the excess solutes are actively excreted out of the body usiing the kidneys or gills

159
Q

what is a challenge of aquatic plants facing salt balance

A

high osmotic potential of the saltwater environment makes it difficult for the roots to take up water and rid themselves of excess salt

160
Q

increased concentration of salt in rivers, streams, lakes, and wetlands

A

freshwater salinization

161
Q

wha favors the evolution of eusocial behavior and why

A

being haplodiploid; by providing large indirect fitness effects when workers do not breed and instead help their sisters

162
Q

when the cost of forgoing reproduction by not leaving the home colony is small, what is no longer required to favor eusocial behavior

A

a large coefficient of relatedness

163
Q

why are eusocial species fascinating to ecologists

A

because most individuals dont mature sexually or reproduce, instead they specialize at tasks that include defending or foraginf for the group or taking care of the subsequent offspring of their parents

164
Q

consists of individuals within a social group that share a specialized form of behavior

A

caste

165
Q

what has the concept of kin selection given ecologists a better understanding of

A

the evolutionary reasons underlying a wide variety of altruistic and selfish behaviors in animals

166
Q

when selfish interactions provide direct fitness to the donor, altruistic interactions provide…

A

indirect fitness benefits to the donor, weighted by the coefficient of relatedness between the donor and the recipient

167
Q

if the inclusive fitness of altruistic behaviors exceeds the inclusive fitness of selfish behaviors, then…

A

altruism will be favored by natural selection

168
Q

genes for altruistic behavior will be favored in a population when…

A

the fitness benefit to the recipient (B) times the recipient’s coefficient of relatedness to the donor (r) is greater than the direct fitness cost to the donor (C)

B * r > C

169
Q

for altruism to evolve,

A

the cost-benefit ratio must be less than the coefficient of relatedness between the donor and recipient

C / B < r

170
Q

the fitness benefit gained by a recipient relative (B) multiplied by the coefficient of relatedness between the donor and the recipient relative (r)

A

indirect fitness benefit

indirect fitness benefit = B x r

171
Q

direct fitness is favored by

A

direct selection

172
Q

indirect fitness through relatives is favored by

A

indirect selection/kin selection

173
Q

the probability that copies of a particular gene are shared by relatives

A

coefficient of relatedness

174
Q

the coefficient of relatedness of a focal individual and its parents would be

A

0.5

175
Q

the coefficient of relatedness between a focal individual and its siblings is

A

0.5

176
Q

the coefficient of relatedness of a focal individual and its cousin would be

A

0.125

177
Q

why is altruism an interesting evolutionary behavior

A

because it doesn’t lead to an increase in direct fitness

178
Q

the fitness that an individual gains by passing on copies of its genes to its offspring

A

direct fitness

179
Q

increases the fitness of the recipient but decreases the fitness of the donor

A

altruism

180
Q

occurs when a social interaction gives both the donor and recipient lower fitness

A

spitefulness

181
Q
  • when the donor experiences fitness and the recipient experiences decreased fitness
  • a common interaction between two conspecifics that compete for a resource such as food
  • the winner of the competition receives a fitness benefit, while the loser experiences a fitness loss
A

selfishness

182
Q

when the donor and the recipient both experience increased fitness from the interaction

A

cooperation

183
Q

social rankings among individuals in a group, typically determined by through fighting or other contests of strength or skill

A

dominance hierarchies

184
Q

any area defended by one or more individuals against the intrusion of others; typically valuable because they contain resources; can be transient or permanent

A

territory

185
Q

benefits to living in groups

A
  • increased rate of survival
  • rate of feeding
  • success in finding mates
186
Q

the reduced, or diluted probability of predation to a single animal when it is in a group

A

dilution effect

187
Q

the location of the aggregation to put on a display to distract the opposite sex

A

lek

188
Q

costs of living in groups

A
  • predation
  • parasitism
  • competition
189
Q

what size group has the lowest stress level and why

A

medium-size groups because they travel less than either small or large groups and experience lower competition

190
Q

when carbon dioxide dissolves in water, most of the molecules combine with water and are quickly converted to

A

carbonic acid (H2CO3)

191
Q

when a system deviates from its desired state or set point, internal response mechanisms act to restore that desired state

A

negative feedback

192
Q

plants possessing the C3 photosynthetic pathway are better adapted to what type of conditions

A

cool and wet

193
Q

plants possessing the C4 and CAM photosynthetic pathways are better adapted to what type of conditions

A

warm and arid

194
Q
  • using mesophyll and bundle sheath cells, these plants separate the steps in time
  • open stomata for gas exchange during the cool night (transpiration minimal), conduct photosynthesis during the hot day
  • assimilate CO2 into OAA, which is then converted to malic acid and stored at high concentrations in vacuoles
  • regeneration of PEP from pyruvate following release of CO2 regulated
  • results in extremely high water-use efficiencies and enables plants to occur in water-limited conditions and happens at a relatively low rate
A

CAM photosynthesis

195
Q

closing of stomata as a result of hot and dry conditions results in

A
  • decrease of CO2
  • increase of O2
  • increase in photorespiration
196
Q
  • first step of this pathway joins CO2 with phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) to produce oxaloacetic acid (OAA)
  • catalyzed by PEP carboxylase, which has a higher affinity for CO2 than rubisco
  • calvin cycle takes place in chloroplasts of bundle sheaths
  • allows stomata to remain partially or completely closed for longer periods of time, which reduces water loss

CO2 + PEP –> OAA

A

C4 photosynthetic pathway

197
Q

disadvantages of C4 photosynthesis

A
  • less leaf tissue devoted to photosynthesis
  • some of the energy produced by the light reactions is used in the initial C4 carbon assimilation step
198
Q

where are C4 plants most prevalent

A

tropical and subtropical grasslands

199
Q

benefit of utilizing PEP carboxylase for photosynthesis

A

has a higher affinity for CO2, so it can bind CO2 at a lower concentration in the cell

200
Q

depending on the pH of the water, carbonic acid molecules can release hydrogen ions to form either

A

bicarbonate ions or carbonate ions

201
Q

readily dissolve in water, most common form of inorganic carbon in aquatic habitats

A

bicarbonate ion

202
Q

dissolved CO2 and bicarbonate ions are in

A

chemical equilibrium

203
Q

a region of unstirred air or water that surrounds the surface of an object

A

boundary layer

204
Q

what is an important adaptation that allows aquatic animals to deal with a limited amount of oxgen

A

the direction of blood flow in the gills, which is used to extract oxygen from the water

205
Q

two fluids moving in the same direction on either side of a barier and heat or material are exchanged

A

concurrent circulation

206
Q

two fluids move in opposite directions on either side of a barrier and heat or materials are exchanged

A

countercurrent circulation

207
Q

what happens when blood and water flow in opposite directions

A

the concentration of oxygen in the water exceeds the concentration in the blood throughout most of the region of contact

208
Q

what type of blood flow in animal gills allows much more oxygen to be extracted from the water and moved to the gills

A

countercurrent blood flow/circulation

209
Q

an environment completely devoid of oxygen

A

anaerobic or anoxic environment

210
Q

the layer of chemically and biologically altered material that overlies bedrock or other unaltered material at Earth’s surface

A

soil

211
Q

what is the makeup of soil?

A
  • materials derived from parent material
  • modified minerals formed within the soil
  • organic material contributed by plants, air, and water within the soil
  • organic material contributed by plants, air, and water within the pores of the soil
  • living roots of the plants
  • microorganisms
  • larger worms and anthropods that make the soil their home
212
Q

known as the bedrock that underlies soil and plays a major role in determining the type of soil that will form above it

A

parent material

213
Q

categorized by the components and process that occur at each level of soil

A

horizons

214
Q

what are the soil characteristics determined by

A
  • climate
  • parent material
  • vegetation
  • local topography
  • age
215
Q

the physical and chemical alteration of rock material near the earht’s surface, occurs whenever surface water penetrates parent material

A

weathering

216
Q
  • a measure of the potential energy of the water and indicates its tendency to move from one area to another
  • affects the movement of water in the soil from one location to another and depends on several factors
A

water potential

217
Q

factors that affect water potential

A
  • gravity
  • pressure
  • osmotic potential
  • matrix potential
218
Q

the potential energy generated by the attractive forces between water molecules and the matrix of soil particles

A

matrix potential

219
Q

the lowest water potential at which most plants can obtain water from the soil

A

wilting point

220
Q

the water molecules closest to the surfaces of soil particles adhere the most (weakly/strongly)

A

strongly

221
Q

the maximum water held by soil particles against the force fo gravity or the maximum amount of water available to plants of the soil

A

field capacity

222
Q

the amount of water in soil and its availability to plants depend on

A
  • the physical structure of the soil
  • the more surface area or volume of the soil it has
223
Q

soils with a high proportion of what particles hold more water on their surfaces than soils with a high proportion of silt particles

A

clay

224
Q

soils with a high proportion of what particles hold more water on their surfaces than soils with a high proportion of sand particles because they tend to dry out since water quickly drains away

A

silt

225
Q

as we move away from sand to silt to clay, avg particle size declines and what happens as a result

A

there is an increase in both field capacity and wilting point

226
Q

soils that are high in what particles are poor soils for growing many plants including crops that humans rely on for food

A

sand or clay

227
Q

the best soils for growing plants are those containing

A

a mixture of silt, clay, and sand, such as loam

228
Q
  • catalyzed by RuBP carboxylase-oxidase (rubisco), has a low affinity for CO2
  • creates 2 molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P)
  • CO2 is initially assimilated into G3P
  • vast majority of plants on earth use this photosynthetic pathway
  • carbon assimilation using rubisco is inefficient at low concentrationsof CO2, high levels of rubisco needed
A

C3 photosynthesis

229
Q
  • leads to high O2 concentrations and low CO2 concentrations in the leaves
  • caused in part by closed stomata
  • consumes energy and O2, which produces CO2

2 G3P –> RuBP + CO2

A

photorespiration

230
Q

under what conditions does rubisco preferentially bind to O2 rather than CO2

A
  • high temps
  • high O2 concentration
  • low CO2 concentration
231
Q
  • light reactions that depend on the light energy from the Sun and include a series of events from the absorption of light to the production of high energy compounds and CO2
  • the Calvin Cycle in which these high energy compounds ATP and NADPH which are used by the cell to convert these compounds to convert CO2 into glucose

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + photons –> C6H12O6 + 6 O2

A

photosynthesis

232
Q

if a root cell has a higher solute concentration than the soil water what happens

A

osmotic forces can draw the water into the root

233
Q

prevent large solute molecules from leaving the plant’s root

A

semipermeable membranes

234
Q

actively transport ions and small molecules against a concentration gradient into the root cells

A

cell membrane

235
Q
  • small opening on the surface of leaves that are points of entry for CO2 and points of exit for water vapor and oxygen
  • collapsing guard cells closes these
A

stomata

236
Q

the movement of water through xylem cells depends on

A

the cohesion of water molecules

237
Q

what happens to plants growing in places with strong matrix potentials

A

increase concentrations of amino acids, carbohydrates, or organic acids in their root cells to create higher osmotic forces that help move water into the roots (comes at a high metabolic price)

238
Q

the increased salt concentration of the soil with repeated irrigation events

A

soil salinization

239
Q

the evaporated water that moves out of the leaves and into the air

A

transpiration

240
Q

the water potential from transpiration creates

A

a continuous gradient from leaf surfaces in contact with the atmosphere down to the surfaces of root hairs in contact with soil water

241
Q

the mechanism of water due to both water cohesion and waer tension

A

cohesion-tension theory

242
Q

more plant diversity =

A

more animal diversity

243
Q

depend on flow, depth, temperature, salinity, and O2/oxygen

A

aquatic biomes

244
Q

the bed of a stream or river through which the majority of water flows; the deepest and most navigable part of a channel

A

main channel

245
Q

two adaptations plant species display to retain and obtain water

A
  • root depth (shallow, quick; deeper, less and slower)
  • leaf characteristics (waxy coatings prevent evapotranspiration and small hairs can provide amounts of shade)
  • ability to regulate osmotic potential
246
Q
A
247
Q

if you were to find a new plant species in an arid environment with spatial separation of photosynthesis and respiration processes what would you classify it as

A

C4

C4 plants are found in arid/dry environments as well as CAM plants, but C4 plants specifically separate their light and dark reactions spatially. CAM plants separate theirs temporally

248
Q

what adaptation would be needed for controlling the depth in the water at which the organism wants to stay at

A

swim bladder

249
Q

what adaptation would be needed to consume oxygen very efficiently

A

slow metabolism

250
Q

what adaptation would be suited for extracting oxygen from gills and swim bladders very efficiently

A

extra hemoglobin

251
Q

what adaptation would be best suited for forcing water to travel from soil into roots

A

osmotic potential

252
Q

what adaptation would be best suited for maximizing oxygen absorption from water into blood

A

countercurrent circulation

253
Q

what adaptation would be best suited for accessing the water that stays in higher levels of the soil

A

shallow root depth

254
Q

how does selection act on behavior

A
  • selection acts on phenotypes, not genotypes and behavioral adaptations are phenotypic traits just like color or morphology
  • these traits are advantageous and heritable as well
255
Q

plants living in dry climates with dramatically different conditions during the day vs at night tend to exhibit … isolation between photosynthetic reactions whereas plants living in more consistently dry and hot conditions tend to exhibit … isolation between photosynthetic reactions

A

temporal; spatial

256
Q

why does countercurrent circulation work

A
  • Countercirculation ensures that there is always a gradient for the oxygen to travel from the water to the blood
  • If the low oxygenated blood encounters the water first, the oxygen from the water will be immediately depleted, which would destroy the oxygen gradient
  • If the oxygen rich blood encounters the water first, however, the water’s oxygen will not be quickly depleted, meaning that there will still be lots left for the gradient to be maintained for the oxygen poor blood
257
Q

… moves water throughout the plant, whereas … pulls water into the plant

A

xylem, transpiration

258
Q

when nurients/minerals leach down through layers

A

eluviation

259
Q

when nutrients/materials build up in a layer due to eluviation

A

illuviation

260
Q

used to determine stream quality

A

EPT

stoneflies (plecoptera)
caddisflies (trichoptera

Mayflies (Ephemeropter)
Stoneflies (Plecoptera)
Caddisflies (Trichoptera)

261
Q
  • where lotic and terrestrial systems meet
  • good for higher vegetative diversity
  • important for stream/river health
A

riparian zone

262
Q

allocthonous zones are typially what type of streams

A

lower order

263
Q

autochtonous zones are typically what types of streams

A

higher order

264
Q

what biome is pittsburgh located within? what are some characteristics of that biome

A

Temperate seasonal forest; high levels of precipitation and humidity, well-defined seasons, variety of deciduous trees which lose their leaves in the fall / winter seasons, etc.

265
Q

A new island formed by volcanic action may eventually become populated with biotic communities as a result of

A

the process of ecological succession

266
Q

Which zone in ecology is associated with organisms such as mayflies, stoneflies, and caddisflies, and is often used as an indicator of water quality?

A

benthic zone

267
Q

What is the ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone) and where would it be found?

A

The intertropical convergence zone is located along the equator where the north and south trade winds converge. This area receives large amounts of rain due to the solar heating and large amounts of evaporation

268
Q

a process that causes water to mix because the changing seasons and fluctuating temperatures change the water temperature

A

turnover

269
Q
A
  • Turnover occurs in temperate climates that have rotating seasons
  • The density of water is dependent on temperature and these temperature changes (specifically in the spring and fall) cause vertical mixing as the surface temperature drops or rises
  • Spring turnover brings nutrients from sediments on the bottom to the surface and oxygen from the surface to the depths
  • Fall turnover brings oxygen to deep waters and nutrients to the surface
270
Q

Marginalized communities experience effects of climate change more and receive help less

A

environmental injustice

271
Q
A
272
Q

long-term heating of Earth’s surface due to anthropogenic inputs of greenhouse gases

A

global warming

273
Q

’

the efficiency of an organism’s water use is best determine by

A

the overall size of the kidneys relative to the size of the mammal’s body

274
Q

larger kidney sizes are found in places with

A

less precipitation

275
Q

the ultimate source of heat at the surface of the Earth

A

sunlight

276
Q

the emission of electromagnetic energy by a surface

A

radiation

277
Q

the transfer of heat between objects that are in contact with one another, with heat moving from the warmer object to the cooler object

A

conduction

278
Q

the rate at which heat moves by conduction between an organism and its surroundings depends on what three factors

A
  • its surface area
  • its resistance to heat transfer
  • its temperature difference between the organism and its surroundings
279
Q

the transfer of heat by the movement of liquids and gases

A

convection

280
Q

plant adaptations to cold temperatures

A
  • moving water out of cells, forcing ice to only occur between cells to not cause damage
  • growing low and close to the sun-warmed ground allows plants to experience warmer temperatures
281
Q

occurs when blood vessels can be shut off at precapillary sphincters so that less of the animals warm blood flows out to the extremities, where heat would be lost to the cold environment and is redirected into the veins before it reaches them

A

blood shunting

282
Q

adaptations of the animal circulatory system

A
  • blood shunting
  • countercurrent circulation
283
Q
  • maintain a higher body temperature to occupy environments that ectotherms aren’t able to occupy
  • gain heat from solar radiation, conduction, convection, or metabolic heat
A

endotherms

284
Q

the rate of metabolism required to maintain a particular body temperature (increases/decreases) in direct proportion to the difference between the temperature of the body and the temperature of the environment

A

increases

285
Q

the greater the difference between an animal’s body temperature and the outside temperature,

A

the greater the heat loss

286
Q

adjust their heat balance behaviorally by moving into or out of shade, by changing their orientation to the Sun, or by adjusting their contact with warm substrates (ex: basking)

A

ectotherms

287
Q

true or false:

because large organisms have a low ratio surface area to volume, larger individuals transfer heat across their surfaces more rapidly than smaller individuals

A

false

less rapidly

288
Q
A
289
Q

organisms that thermoregulate by maintaining a constant body temperature

A

homeotherms

290
Q

organisms that thermoregulate via maintaining variable body temperatures

A

heterotherms and poikilotherms

291
Q

having a thicker boundary layer will do what for convection of heat of an animal

A

will tend to slow heat transfer between the air surrounding an organism and the air moving past an organism

292
Q

the transformation of a liquid to a gas with the input of heat energy

A

evaporation

293
Q

what is a substantial cost of evaporation

A

water loss

294
Q

all endotherms are

A

homeotherms

295
Q

how do animals regulate temperature through behavioral mechanisms

A
  • basking, gaping, shivering
296
Q

how do animals regulate temperature through mechanical mechanisms

A

countercurrent circulation

297
Q

how do animals regulate temperature through physiological mechanisms

A
  • blood shunting
  • sweating
  • hibernation
  • torpor
298
Q

how do animals actively maintain water balance

A
  • stay near water
  • tolerate water loss
  • resist water loss

Ecology (3 decks)

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