EXAM #1 Flashcards
Skeletal System:
- Composed of _ in the adult body
- Provides leverage, support, and protection
- Pulled on by muscles to allow the body to push or pull against external objects
206 bones
Skeletal System:
Consists of the skull, vertebral column (C1-coccyx), ribs, and sternum
Axial
Skeletal System:
Consists of shoulder girdle;
bones of the arms, wrists, hands, and pelvic girdle; and bones of the legs, ankles, and feet
Appendicular
Types of Joints
- Fibrous
- Cartilaginous
- Synovial
- Uniaxial
- Biaxial
- Multiaxial
Types of Joints:
Junctions of bones
Joint
Types of Joints:
Allow virtually no movement
– Example: Sutures of the skull
Fibrous
Types of Joints:
Allow limited movement
– Example: Intervertebral
Cartilaginous
Types of Joints:
Allow considerable movement
– Example: Elbows and knees
Synovial
Types of Joints:
Operate as a hinge, rotate about one axis
– Example: Elbow
Uniaxial
Types of Joints:
Operate in two perpendicular axes
– Example: Ankle and wrist
Biaxial
Types of Joints:
Allow movement in all three axes
– Example: Shoulder and hip
Multiaxial
Vertebral Column:
Vertebral bones separated by _ that allow for movement
flexible disks
Vertebral Column:
– Cervical vertebrae (neck region): _
7
Vertebral Column:
– Thoracic vertebrae (upper back): _
12
Vertebral Column:
– Lumbar vertebrae (lower back): _
5
Vertebral Column:
– Sacral vertebrae (make up rear of pelvis): _
5
Vertebral Column:
– Coccygeal vertebrae (form vestigial tail extending
down from the pelvis): _
3-5
Motor Unit:
- A motor unit consists
of a _ and the muscle fibers it innervates.
- There are typically
several hundred _ in a single motor unit.
- motor neuron
- muscle fibers
A
Dendrites
B
Nucleus
C
Axon
D
Myelin sheath
E
Node of Ranvier
F
Neuromuscular junction
The discharge of an action potential from a motor nerve signals the release of _ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the _, causing tension development in muscle
- calcium
- myofibril
Muscular system:
- States that the actin filaments at each end of the
sarcomere slide inward on myosin filaments, pulling
the Z-lines toward the center of the sarcomere and thus shortening the muscle fiber
Sliding-filament theory of muscular contraction
Contraction of a Myofibril:
(a) In stretched muscle the I-bands and H-zone are
_, and there is _ force potential due to reduced crossbridge–actin alignment.
- elongated
- low
Contraction of a Myofibril:
– (b) When muscle contracts (here partially), the
I-bands and H-zone are _.
shortened
Contraction of a Myofibril:
– (c) With completely _ muscle, there is _ force potential due to reduced crossbridge–actin
alignment.
- contracted
- low
Muscular system:
Sliding-filament theory of muscular contraction
– Resting phase
– Excitation–contraction coupling phase
– Contraction phase
– Recharge phase
– Relaxation phase
The number of crossbridges that are formed between actin and myosin at any instant in time dictates the _ of a muscle
force production
_ are necessary for
crossbridge cycling with actin and myosin filaments
Calcium and ATP
Neuromuscular system:
Activation of muscles
- The extent of control of a muscle depends on the
number of _ within each motor unit.
muscle fibers
Neuromuscular system:
Activation of muscles
– Muscles that function with _ may have as few as one muscle fiber per motor neuron
great precision
Neuromuscular system:
Activation of muscles
– Muscles that require _ may have several hundred fibers served by one motor neuron
less precision
All of the muscle fibers in the motor unit contract and develop force at the same time.
- There is no evidence that a motor neuron stimulus causes only some of the fibers to contract.
- Similarly, a stronger action potential cannot produce a stronger contraction
all-or-none principle
Twitch, twitch summation, and tetanus of a Motor unit:
Single twitch = _
a
Twitch, twitch summation, and tetanus of a Motor unit:
Force resulting from summation of two twitches = _
b
Twitch, twitch summation, and tetanus of a Motor unit:
Unfused tetanus = _
c
Twitch, twitch summation, and tetanus of a Motor unit:
Fused tetanus = _
d
Neuromuscular system:
Muscle fiber types
– Type I (slow-twitch)
– Type IIa (intermediate fiber)
– Type IIb (fastest twitch)
– Type IIx (fast-twitch)
Neuromuscular system:
Muscle fiber types
- _ (slow-twitch)
Type I
Neuromuscular system:
Muscle fiber types
- _ (intermediate fiber)
Type IIa
Neuromuscular system:
Muscle fiber types
- _ (fastest twitch)
Type IIb
Neuromuscular system:
Muscle fiber types
- _ (fast-twitch)
Type IIx
Motor units are composed of _ with specific morphological and
physiological characteristics that determine their functional capacity
muscle fibers
Neuromuscular system:
Motor unit recruitment patterns during exercise
- The force output of a muscle can be varied through change in the _ of individual motor units or change in the _ motor units
- frequency of activation
- number of activated
_ are specialized sensory
receptors that provide the central nervous system with information needed to maintain muscle tone and perform complex coordinated movements.
Proprioceptors
Proprioception:
Muscle spindles
- When a muscle is stretched, deformation of the muscle spindle activates the _, which sends an impulse to the _, where it synapses with a motor neuron, causing the muscle to contract
- sensory neuron
- spinal cord
Proprioception:
_ are proprioceptors located in tendons near the myotendinous junction.
- They occur in series (i.e., attached end to end) with extrafusal muscle fibers
Golgi tendon organs
Proprioception:
Golgi tendon organs
- When an _ is placed on the muscle, discharge of the GTO occurs.
extremely heavy load
Proprioception:
Golgi tendon organs
– The sensory neuron of the GTO activates an _ in the spinal cord, which in turn synapses with and inhibits a motor neuron serving the same muscle
inhibitory interneuron
Neuromuscular system:
How can athletes improve force production?
- Incorporate phases of training that use _ in order to optimize neural recruitment
heavier loads
Neuromuscular system:
How can athletes improve force production?
- Increase the _ of muscles
involved in the desired activity
cross-sectional area
Neuromuscular system:
How can athletes improve force production?
- Perform _ exercises that can be done with more explosive actions to optimize fast-twitch muscle recruitment
multi-muscle, multi-joint
Cardiovascular system:
The _ is a muscular organ made up of two interconnected but separate pumps.
- The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs.
- The left ventricle pumps blood to the rest of the body
heart
Cardiovascular system:
Heart
- Controls the mechanical contraction of the heart
Conduction system
Cardiac conduction:
Rhythmicity and conduction properties of myocardium
– Influenced by cardiovascular center of _
medulla
Cardiac conduction:
Rhythmicity and conduction properties of myocardium
– Signals transmitted through _ nervous systems
sympathetic and
parasympathetic
Cardiac conduction:
Rhythmicity and conduction properties of myocardium
– _ (<60 beats/min)
Bradycardia
Cardiac conduction:
Rhythmicity and conduction properties of myocardium
– _ (>100 beats/min)
Tachycardia
Cardiovascular system:
Heart
- Recorded at the surface of the body
- A graphic representation of the electrical activity of the heart
Electrocardiogram
Cardiovascular system:
EKG
- Atrial contraction = _
P
Cardiovascular system:
EKG
- Ventricle contraction = _
QRS
Cardiovascular system:
EKG
- Repolarization = _
T
Cardiovascular system:
Blood vessels
- Operate in a _ system.
closed-circuit
Cardiovascular system:
Blood vessels
- The arterial system carries blood _ from the
heart.
away
Cardiovascular system:
Blood vessels
- The venous system returns blood _ the heart
toward
Cardiovascular system:
Blood
- Hemoglobin transports oxygen and serves as an
_
acid–base buffer
Cardiovascular system:
Blood
- Red blood cells facilitate _ removal
carbon dioxide
The cardiovascular system _ while helping to maintain the environment for all the body’s functions
transports nutrients and removes waste products
- The blood transports oxygen from the lungs
to the tissues for use in _; - and it transports carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs, where it is _
- cellular metabolism
- removed from the body
Respiratory system:
The primary function of the respiratory system is the basic exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
Exchange of respiratory gases
Respiratory system:
- The process of diffusion is a simple random motion
of molecules moving in opposite directions through
the alveolar capillary membrane
Exchange of respiratory gases
The mechanisms through which components interact to create movement
Biomechanics
System of muscles enables the skeleton to move
skeletal musculature
Skeletal musculature:
Proximal (toward the center of the body) attachment
Origin
Skeletal musculature:
Distal (away from the center of the body) attachment
Insertion
The muscle most directly involved in bringing about a movement; also called the prime mover
Agonist
A muscle that can slow down or stop the movement
Antagonist
A muscle that assists indirectly in a movement
synergist
Lever:
_ = force applied to the lever
FA
Lever:
_ = moment arm of the
applied force
MAF
Lever:
_ = force resisting the lever’s rotation
FR
Lever:
_ = moment arm of the resistive force
MRF
Lever:
The _ applies a force on the object equal in magnitude to but opposite in direction from FR.
lever
The ratio of the moment arm through which an applied force acts to that through which a resistive force acts
Mechanical advantage
Mechanical advantage:
Greater than 1.0 means a person can _ than the resistive force to produce an equal amount of torque
apply less (muscle) force
Mechanical advantage:
Less than 1.0 means a person must _ than the amount of resistive force present, creating a disadvantage for the muscle
apply greater (muscle) force
A lever for which the muscle
force and resistive force act on opposite sides of the fulcrum
First-class lever
A lever for which the muscle force and resistive force act on the same side of the fulcrum.
- With the muscle force acting through a moment arm longer than that through which the resistive
force acts.
- Due to the muscle’s mechanical advantage, the
required muscle force is smaller than the resistive force
second-class lever
Example of a second class lever
Standing calf raise (plantar flexion against resistance)
A lever for which the muscle
force and resistive force act on the same side of the fulcrum.
- With the muscle force acting through a moment
arm shorter than that through which the resistive
force acts.
- The mechanical advantage is thus less than 1.0, so the muscle force has to be greater than the resistive force to produce torque equal to that produced by the resistive force
third-class lever
Example of a third class lever
Bicep curl (Elbow flexion against resistance)
Mechanical advantage:
The patella _ the mechanical advantage of the quadriceps muscle group by maintaining the quadriceps tendon’s distance from the knee’s axis of rotation
increases
Mechanical advantage:
When the moment arm (M) is shorter, there is _
less mechanical advantage
Most of the skeletal muscles operate at a
considerable _
mechanical disadvantage
Most of the skeletal muscles operate at a
considerable mechanical disadvantage.
- Thus, during sports and other physical activities, forces in the _ than those exerted by the hands or feet on external objects or the ground
muscles and tendons are much higher
Tendon insertion:
Tendon insertion farther from the joint center results
in the ability to _
lift heavier weights
Tendon insertion:
Tendon insertion farther from the joint center results
in the ability to lift heavier weights.
- This arrangement results in a loss of maximum _
- This arrangement reduces the muscle’s _ during faster movements
- speed
- force capability
Anatomical planes:
The _ slices the body into left–right sections
sagittal plane
Anatomical planes:
The _ slices the body into front–back sections
frontal plane
Anatomical planes:
The _ slices the body into upper–lower sections
transverse plane
The capacity to exert maximal force
strength
The product of force exerted on an object and
the distance the object moves in the direction the
force is exerted
work
work =
force x distance
The time rate of doing work
power
power = _
Work/Time (FxD/T)
Human strength & power:
Work performed on an object by muscle force with the object moving a measurable distance and speed as a result
positive work and power
Human strength & power:
- Work performed on, rather than by, a muscle
- Occurs during eccentric muscle actions
Negative work
Biomechanical factors in human strength:
- Recruitment affects maximal force output by determining which and how many motor units are involved in a muscle
contraction
- Rate coding affects maximal force output by determining the rate at which the motor units are fired
Neural control
Biomechanical factors in human strength:
In general, the larger the cross-sectional area, the greater force capabilities
Muscle cross-sectional area
Biomechanical factors in human strength:
- Pennate muscle
- Angle of pennation
arrangement of muscle fibers
Biomechanical factors in human strength:
A muscle with fibers that align obliquely with the tendon, creating a featherlike arrangement
Pennate muscle
Biomechanical factors in human strength:
The angle between the muscle fibers and an imaginary line between the muscle’s origin and
insertion; 0°corresponds to no pennation
angle of pennation
Biomechanical factors in human strength:
- Actin and myosin filaments lie next to each other
- A maximal number of potential crossbridge sites are available
- The muscle can generate the greatest force
Muscle length (at resting length)
Biomechanical factors in human strength:
- A smaller proportion of the actin and myosin filaments lie next to each other
- Fewer potential crossbridge sites are available
- The muscle cannot generate as much force
Muscle length (when stretched)
Biomechanical factors in human strength:
- The actin filaments overlap
- The number of crossbridge sites is reduced
- There is decreased force generation capability
Muscle length (when contracted)
Muscle length & actin/myosin interaction:
Muscle force capability is
greatest when the muscle is at _ because of increased opportunity for actin-myosin crossbridges
its resting length
Biomechanical factors in human strength:
Amount of torque depends on force versus muscle length, leverage, type of exercise, the body joint in question, the muscles used at that joint, and the speed of contraction
Joint angle
Biomechanical factors in human strength:
Nonlinear, but in general, the force capability of muscle declines as the velocity of contraction increases
Muscle contraction velocity
Biomechanical factors in human strength:
There are three types of muscle action
- Concentric, Eccentric and Isometric
joint angular velocity
Biomechanical factors in human strength:
- The muscle shortens because the contractile force is greater than the resistive force.
- The forces generated
within the muscle and acting to shorten it are
greater than the external forces acting at its tendons to stretch it
Concentric/myometric muscle action
Biomechanical factors in human strength:
- The muscle lengthens because the contractile force is less than the resistive force.
- The forces generated within the muscle and acting to shorten it are less than the external forces acting at its tendons to stretch it
eccentric muscle action
Biomechanical factors in human strength:
- The muscle length does not change, because the contractile force is equal to the resistive force.
- The forces generated within the muscle and acting to shorten it are equal to the external forces acting at its tendons to stretch it
Isometric muscle action
Biomechanical factors in human strength:
- In sprinting and jumping, the ratio directly reflects an
athlete’s ability to accelerate his or her body.
- In sports involving weight classification, the ratio helps determine when strength is highest relative to that of other athletes in the weight class
strength-to-mass ratio
Biomechanical factors in human strength:
- As body size increases, body mass increases more rapidly than does muscle strength.
- Given constant body proportions, the smaller athlete has a higher strength-to-mass ratio than does the larger athlete
Body size
In sport activities such as sprinting and jumping, the ratio of the strength of the
muscles involved in the movement to the mass of the body parts being accelerated is critical
- Thus, the _ an athlete’s ability to accelerate his or her body
strength-to-mass ratio directly reflects
Sources of resistance to muscle contraction:
Gravity
- Applications to resistance training
– When the weight is horizontally closer to the joint, it exerts _
less resistive torque
Sources of resistance to muscle contraction:
Gravity
- Applications to resistance training
– When the weight is horizontally farther from a joint, it exerts _
more resistive torque
Sources of resistance to muscle contraction
Gravity
_ can affect the resistive
torque pattern during an exercise and can shift stress among muscle groups
Exercise technique
Sources of resistance to muscle contraction:
- Though the force of gravity acts only downward,
_ can act in any direction
– However, upward or lateral acceleration of the
weight requires additional force
Inertial force
Sources of resistance to muscle contraction:
- _ is the resistive force encountered when one attempts to move an object while it is pressed
against another object
Friction
Sources of resistance to muscle contraction:
- Fluid resistance is the resistive force encountered by an object moving through a fluid (liquid or gas), or by a fluid moving past or around an object or through an opening
Fluid resistance
Sources of resistance to muscle contraction:
- The more an elastic component is stretched, the greater the resistance
Elasticity
Three basic energy systems exist in muscle cells to replenish ATP
- Phosphagen system – ATP/PC
- Glycolysis
- Oxidative system – Oxidative Phosporlyation
Energy systems in muscle cells to replenish ATP:
Phosphagen system – ATP/PC, _
0-6 seconds
Energy systems in muscle cells to replenish ATP:
Glycolysis - _
30 seconds to 2 min
Energy systems in muscle cells to replenish ATP:
Oxidative system – Oxidative Phosporlyation, _
2 min to hrs
Biological Energy Systems:
- Provides ATP primarily for short-term, high-intensity
activities (e.g., resistance training and sprinting) and
is active at the start of all exercise regardless of
intensity
– Creatine kinase catalyzes the synthesis of ATP from
PCR/CP and ADP
Phosphagen system
Biological Energy Systems:
Phosphagen system
- ATP stores
– The body does not store enough ATP for _
– Some ATP is needed for basic cellular function.
– The phosphagen system uses the _
reaction to maintain the concentration of ATP.
– The phosphagen system replenishes ATP rapidly
- exercise
- creatine kinase
Biological Energy Systems:
Glycolysis
- The end result of glycolysis (pyruvate) may proceed
in one of two directions:
(1) Pyruvate can be converted to lactate
(2) Pyruvate can be shuttled into the mitochondria
Biological Energy Systems:
Glycolysis
(1) Pyruvate can be converted to lactate.
- ATP resynthesis occurs at a faster rate but is limited in
duration.
- This process is sometimes called _
anaerobic glycolysis (or fast glycolysis)
Biological Energy Systems:
Glycolysis
(2) Pyruvate can be shuttled into the mitochondria.
- When pyruvate is shuttled into the mitochondria to undergo the Krebs cycle, the ATP resynthesis rate is slower, but it can occur for a longer duration if the exercise intensity is
low enough.
- This process is often referred to as _
aerobic glycolysis (or
slow glycolysis)
Biological Energy Systems:
Control of glycolysis
- Stimulated by high concentrations of _ and by a slight decrease in pH and AMP
ADP, Pi, and ammonia
Biological Energy Systems:
Control of glycolysis
- Inhibited by markedly lower _
pH, ATP, CP, citrate, and free fatty acids
Biological Energy Systems:
Control of glycolysis
- Also affected by hexokinase, _, and
pyruvate kinase
phosphofructokinase
Biological Energy Systems:
Glycolysis
- _ represents an increasing reliance on anaerobic mechanisms
- LT is often used as a marker of the _
- Lactate threshold (LT)
- anaerobic threshold
The exercise intensity or relative intensity at which blood lactate begins an abrupt increase above the baseline concentration
Lactate threshold (LT)
Biological Energy Systems:
Glycolysis
- _ of maximal oxygen uptake in untrained individuals and at 70% to 80% in aerobically trained athletes
Lactate Threshold begins at 50% to 60%
Biological Energy Systems:
- Primary source of ATP at rest and during low-intensity activities
- Uses primarily carbohydrates and fats as substrates
Oxidative (aerobic) system
Biological Energy Systems:
Glucose and glycogen oxidation
– Metabolism of blood glucose and muscle glycogen begins with _ and leads to the Krebs cycle
glycolysis
Biological Energy Systems:
Triglycerides stored in fat cells can be broken down
by hormone-sensitive lipase
- This releases free fatty acids from the fat cells into the blood, where they
can circulate and enter muscle fibers
Fat oxidation
Fat oxidation
_ enter the mitochondria, are broken down, and form acetyl-CoA and hydrogen protons.
- The acetyl-CoA enters the Krebs cycle.
- The hydrogen atoms are carried by NADH and FADH2 to the electron transport chain
Free fatty acids
Biological Energy Systems:
- Protein can be a significant source of energy for
most activities.
- Protein is broken down into amino acids, and the
amino acids are converted into glucose, pyruvate, or
various Krebs cycle intermediates to produce ATP
Protein oxidation
Biological Energy Systems:
Control of the oxidative (aerobic) system
- Isocitrate dehydrogenase is stimulated by _
ADP and inhibited by ATP
Biological Energy Systems:
Control of the oxidative (aerobic) system
- The ETC is stimulated by _
ADP and inhibited by ATP
Biological Energy Systems:
Control of the oxidative (aerobic) system
– The rate of the TCA/Krebs cycle is reduced if NAD+
and FAD2+ are _ to
accept hydrogen
not available in sufficient quantities
The extent to which each of the three energy
systems contributes to ATP production depends primarily on the_ and secondarily on the _
- At no time, during either exercise or rest, does any single energy system provide the complete supply of energy
- intensity of muscular activity
- duration
Substrate depletion and repletion:
_ can decrease markedly (50-70%) during the first stage (5-30 seconds) of high-intensity exercise and can be almost eliminated as a result of very intense exercise to exhaustion
Creatine phosphate
Substrate depletion and repletion:
Post exercise phosphagen repletion can occur in a
relatively short period; complete re-synthesis of ATP appears to occur within 3 to 5 minutes, and
complete _
creatine phosphate re-synthesis can occur within 8 minutes
Substrate depletion and repletion:
The rate of glycogen depletion is related to _
- At relative intensities of exercise above 60% of maximal oxygen uptake, muscle glycogen becomes an increasingly
important energy substrate; the entire glycogen content of some muscle cells can become depleted during exercise
exercise intensity
Substrate depletion and repletion:
Repletion of muscle glycogen during recovery is
related to postexercise carbohydrate ingestion.
- Repletion appears to be optimal if _ is ingested
every 2 hours following exercise
0.7 to 3.0 g of
carbohydrate per kilogram of body weight
The use of appropriate exercise intensities and rest intervals allows for the “selection” of specific energy systems during training and results in _ for specific athletic events with various metabolic demands
more efficient and productive regimens
Metabolic specificity of training:
Emphasizes bioenergetic adaptations for a more
efficient energy transfer within the metabolic
pathways by using predetermined intervals of
exercise and rest periods.
- Much more training can be accomplished at higher
intensities
interval training
Metabolic specificity of training:
High-intensity interval training (HIIT)
– Suggested work-to-rest ratios _
> 1:1
Metabolic specificity of training:
Adds aerobic endurance training to the training of
anaerobic athletes in order to enhance recovery
(because recovery relies primarily on aerobic
mechanisms)
– May reduce anaerobic performance capabilities,
particularly high-strength, high-power performance
Combination training
Metabolic specificity of training:
Can reduce the gain in muscle girth, maximum
strength, and speed- and power-related performance
– May be counterproductive in most strength and
power sports
combination training
_ are intimately involved with protein synthesis and degradation
mechanisms that are part of muscle adaptations to resistance exercise
Hormones
Hormones are intimately involved with protein synthesis and degradation
mechanisms that are part of muscle adaptations to resistance exercise
- This includes both _ hormones
anabolic (promote tissue
building) and catabolic (degrade cell proteins)
Roles of receptors in mediating hormonal changes:
The inability of a hormone to interact with a receptor is called _
downregulation
Roles of receptors in mediating hormonal changes:
Alterations to a receptor’s binding characteristics or the number of receptors
can be as dramatic in adaptation as the release of increased amounts of hormone from an _
endocrine gland
Heavy Resistance Exercise
& Hormonal Increases:
- Hormones are secreted _ the resistance exercise bout due to the physiological stress of resistance exercise
before, during, and after
Heavy Resistance Exercise
& Hormonal Increases:
As few as one or two heavy resistance exercise sessions can increase the number
of _ receptors in the muscle
androgen
The _ produced in activated fibers stimulates receptor and membrane sensitivities to anabolic factors, including hormones, which leads to muscle growth and strength changes
specific force
Mechanisms of Hormonal Interactions:
The combination of many different mechanisms is thought to stimulate _
exercise-induced hypertrophy
Mechanisms of Hormonal Interactions:
The combination of many different mechanisms is thought to stimulate exercise-induced hypertrophy.
- _ is involved with this process
Molecular signaling including hormones
Mechanisms of Hormonal Interactions:
The combination of many different mechanisms is thought to stimulate exercise-induced hypertrophy.
- Molecular signaling including hormones is
involved with this process
– This signaling is influenced by _ that provide important signals to the skeletal muscle and thus can augment anabolic processes
neural factors
Hormonal changes in peripheral blood:
Peripheral concentrations of hormones in the blood _ of the various receptor populations or the effects
of a hormone within the cell
do not indicate the status
Hormonal changes in peripheral blood:
It is typically assumed, however, that _ concentration indicate higher probabilities for interactions with receptors
large increases in hormone
Hormonal changes in peripheral blood:
Physiological mechanisms that contribute to changes in peripheral blood concentrations of hormones with exercise
- circadian pattern
- venous pooling of blood
Hormone responses are tightly linked to the
characteristics of the _
resistance exercise
protocol
Adaptations in the Endocrine system:
- Amount of synthesis and _ of hormones
storage
Adaptations in the Endocrine system:
– Time needed for _ through liver and other tissues
clearance of hormones
Adaptations in the Endocrine system:
- How many _ are in the tissues
receptors
Primary Anabolic hormones:
Heavy resistance training using one or two
repetitions in low volume, which may not cause any
changes in concentrations after a workout, could potentially still increase the absolute number of receptors and thus binding sites available to _
testosterone
Adaptations in the Endocrine system:
- Changes in the contents of the _ in a gland
secretory cells
Large muscle group exercises using an
adequate volume of total work result in acute increased total _
concentrations in men
testosterone
Primary Anabolic Hormones:
Testosterone
- Exercise variables that can increase serum testosterone concentrations:
– Movements
Large muscle group exercises (deadlift, squats)
Primary Anabolic Hormones:
Testosterone
- Exercise variables that can increase serum testosterone concentrations:
– Intensity
Heavy resistance (85-95% of 1RM)
Primary Anabolic Hormones:
Testosterone
- Exercise variables that can increase serum testosterone concentrations:
– Repetitions
Moderate to high volume of exercises
Primary Anabolic Hormones:
Testosterone
- Exercise variables that can increase serum testosterone concentrations:
– Rest period duration
Short rest intervals (30 seconds to 1 minute)
Primary Anabolic Hormones:
Testosterone
- Exercise variables that can increase serum testosterone concentrations:
– _ of resistance training experience
Two years or more
Primary Anabolic Hormones:
Testosterone
- Responses in women
– Women have about _ lower concentrations of
circulating testosterone than men do
15- to 20-fold
Primary Anabolic Hormones:
Responses to six sets of squats at 80% of 1RM with
2 minutes rest between sets
(a) Total testosterone
(b) Free testosterone in response
Primary Anabolic Hormones:
- Increases protein synthesis
- Increases collagen synthesis
- Stimulates cartilage growth
- Increases lipolysis (fat breakdown)
Growth hormone
_ release is affected by the type of resistance training protocol used, including the duration of rest period
Growth hormone
Growth hormone:
_ types of workouts result in
greater serum concentrations compared to long rest protocols of similar total work
Short rest period
Primary Anabolic Hormones:
Training adaptations
- It appears that _ concentrations need to be measured over longer time periods (2-24 hours) to show whether changes occur with resistance training.
Growth hormone
Adrenal Hormones:
Exerts its major catabolic effects by
- inhibiting protein synthesis, and
- suppressing many glucose-dependent processes such as glycogenesis and immune cell function
Cortisol
Adrenal Hormones:
Resistance exercise responses
- Responds to resistance exercise protocols that create a dramatic stimulus to anaerobic metabolism
Cortisol
Resistance exercise protocols that use high
volume, large muscle groups, and short rest
periods result in increased _ values
serum cortisol
Though chronic high concentrations of _may have adverse catabolic
effects, acute increases still contribute to the remodeling of muscle tissue and maintenance of blood glucose
cortisol
Adrenal Hormones:
Roles
- Increase force production via central mechanisms and
increased metabolic enzyme activity
- Increase muscle contraction rate
- Increase blood pressure
- Increase energy availability
- Increase muscle blood flow (via vasodilation)
- Augment secretion rates of other hormones, such as
testosterone
Catecholamines
Adrenal Hormones:
Training adaptations
- Heavy resistance training has been shown to increase the ability of an athlete to secrete greater amounts of
epinephrine during maximal exercise
Catecholamines
Adrenal Hormones:
Training adaptations
- Because epinephrine is involved in metabolic control, force production, and the response mechanisms of other hormones (such as testosterone, GHs, and IGFs), stimulation of _ is probably one of the first
endocrine mechanisms to occur in response to resistance exercise
catecholamines
Few data are available
concerning their responses and adaptations to resistance exercise or training
Insulin
Neural adaptations:
Central adaptations
- _ activity increases when the level of force developed increases and when new exercises or movements are being learned
Motor cortex
Neural adaptations:
Adaptations of motor units
- Maximal strength and power increases of agonist
muscles result from an increase in _, or a combination of these factors
recruitment, rate of firing, synchronization of firing
With heavy resistance training, all muscle fibers get _
larger
In advanced lifters, the central nervous system may
adapt by allowing recruitment in _, by recruiting _ to promote great power or speed in a
movement
- non-consecutive order
- larger ones
first
- Low-threshold motor units are recruited first and
have lower force capabilities than higher-threshold motor units. - To get to the high-threshold motor units, the body must first recruit the lower-threshold motor units
Henneman’s size principle
Henneman’s size principle:
- _ are recruited first and
have lower force capabilities than higher-threshold motor units.
Low-threshold motor units
Neural adaptations:
Anaerobic training and electromyography
studies
- Studies have shown strength and power increases of up to _
- Dramatic increases in neural adaptations take place _ in the training program
- 73%
- early
Muscular adaptations:
Skeletal muscle adapts to anaerobic training primarily by _
- increasing its size
- facilitating fiber type transitions
Neural adaptations:
Anaerobic training and electromyography
studies
- Additional findings include
Cross-education
Muscular adaptations:
Skeletal muscle adapts to anaerobic training primarily by increasing its size and facilitating fiber type transitions
- These changes result in enhanced _
muscular strength, power, and muscular endurance
Muscular adaptations:
Muscle _ refers to muscular enlargement from an increase in the cross-sectional area of the
existing fibers
hypertrophy
The process of _involves an increase in the synthesis of the contractile proteins actin and myosin within the myofibril
hypertrophy
Muscular adaptations:
Fiber size changes
- Resistance training results in increases in both _ muscle fiber area
Type I and Type II
Muscle Fiber Transitions:
- Muscle fiber transitions occur during _
- Exercise activities that recruit motor units with Type IIx muscle fibers initiate a shift toward _
- training
- IIa fibers
Muscular adaptations:
Structural and architectural changes
- Resistance training increases _
- Resistance training increases _
- myofibrillar volume
- angle of pennation
Other Muscular adaptations:
- Reduced _ density
- Decreased capillary density
- Increased _
- Changes in muscle substrate content and _
- mitochondrial
- buffering capacity (acid–base balance)
- enzyme activity
Connective tissue adaptations:
Bone modeling
(a) Application of a _ force causes the bone to bend (as depicted by the dotted line), creating a stimulus for new bone formation at the regions experiencing the greatest deformation
longitudinal weight-bearing
Connective tissue adaptations:
Bone modeling
(b) Osteoblasts lay down additional _
collagen fibers
Connective tissue adaptations:
Bone modeling
(c) The _ become mineralized, and the bone diameter effectively increases
collagen fibers
Connective tissue adaptations:
_ is the threshold stimulus that initiates new bone formation
Minimal essential strain (MES)
Connective tissue adaptations:
The MES is approximately _ of the force required to fracture bone
1/10
Forces that reach or exceed a threshold stimulus initiate _ in the area experiencing the mechanical strain
new bone formation
The components of mechanical load that stimulate bone growth:
- Magnitude of the load (intensity)
- Rate (speed) of loading
- Direction of the forces
- Volume of loading (number of repetitions)
Connective tissue adaptations:
How can athletes stimulate bone formation?
- Use exercises that directly load particular regions of the skeleton.
- Use structural exercises to direct force vectors through
the spine and hip and allow the use of greater absolute
loads in training. - Overload the musculoskeletal system and progressively increase the load as the tissues become accustomed to the stimulus.
- Vary exercise selection to change the distribution of the force vectors to continually present a unique stimulus
Connective tissue adaptations:
Adaptations of tendons, ligaments, and fascia to _
anaerobic training
Connective tissue adaptations:
Adaptations of tendons, ligaments, and fascia to anaerobic training
- Sites where connective tissues can increase
strength and load-bearing capacity:
- At the junctions between the tendon (and ligament) and bone surface
- Within the body of the tendon or ligament
Connective tissue adaptations:
Adaptations of tendons, ligaments, and fascia to anaerobic training
- Specific tendinous changes that contribute to size and strength increases:
- An increase in collagen fibril diameter
- A greater number of covalent cross-links within the hypertrophied fiber
- An increase in the number of collagen fibrils
- An increase in the packing density of collagen fibrils
Connective tissue adaptations:
How can athletes stimulate connective tissue adaptations?
- Tendons, ligaments, fascia
- Exercise of low to moderate intensity does not markedly change the collagen content of connective tissue.
- High-intensity loading results in a net growth of the involved connective tissues.
- Forces should be exerted throughout the full range of
motion of a joint
Connective tissue adaptations:
Cartilage adaptations to anaerobic training
- cartilage lacks its own blood supply and must
depend on diffusion of oxygen and nutrients from
synovial fluid. - Movement about a joint creates changes in pressure
in the joint capsule that drive nutrients from the
synovial fluid toward the articular cartilage of the
joint
Connective tissue adaptations:
How can athletes stimulate connective tissue adaptations?
Strenuous exercise does not appear to cause degenerative joint disease
Endocrine Responses and Adaptations to Anaerobic Training:
Hormone receptor changes
- Resistance training has been shown to upregulate
_ after the workout
androgen receptor content within 48 to 72 hours
Cardiovascular and Respiratory Responses to Anaerobic Exercise:
An acute bout of anaerobic exercise significantly
increases the _
cardiovascular responses
Cardiovascular and Respiratory Responses to Anaerobic Exercise:
Acute anaerobic exercise results in increased
- Cardiac output
- Stroke volume
- Heart rate
- Oxygen uptake
- Systolic blood pressure
- Blood flow to active muscles
Cardiovascular and Respiratory Responses to Anaerobic Exercise:
- Anaerobic training leads to _ in resting HR and BP
decreases or no change
Cardiovascular and Respiratory Responses to Anaerobic Exercise:
Chronic resistance training _ to an acute bout of resistance exercise of a given absolute intensity or workload
reduces the cardiovascular response
Cardiovascular and Respiratory Responses to Anaerobic Exercise:
Ventilatory response to anaerobic exercise
- Ventilation generally does _ and is either unaffected or only moderately improved by anaerobic training
not limit resistance
exercise
Compatibility of Aerobic
and Anaerobic Modes of Training:
_ effects on aerobic power result from heavy resistance exercise
No adverse
What Are the Performance Improvements From Anaerobic Exercise?
Muscular strength
- In studies, mean _ approximately
– 40% in “untrained” participants
– 20% in “moderately trained” participants
– 16% in “trained” participants
– 10% in “advanced” participants
– 2% in “elite” participants
strength increased
What Are the Performance Improvements From Anaerobic Exercise?
Muscular strength
- The effects of training are related to the _
type of exercise used, its intensity, and its volume
What Are the Performance Improvements From Anaerobic Exercise?
Power
- Heavy resistance training with slow velocities of
movement leads primarily to improvements in _
maximal strength
What Are the Performance Improvements From Anaerobic Exercise?
Power
- Power training increases _ at higher
velocities and rate of force development
force output
What Are the Performance Improvements From Anaerobic Exercise?
Power
- Peak power output is maximized during the jump
squat with loads corresponding to _ of squat 1RM.
30% to 60%
What Are the Performance Improvements From Anaerobic Exercise?
Body composition
- Increases in _ during exercise are outcomes of resistance training
lean tissue mass, daily metabolic rate, and energy expenditure
What Are the Performance Improvements From Anaerobic Exercise?
Flexibility
- The _ appears to be the most effective method
to improve flexibility with increasing muscle mass
combination of resistance training and stretching
What Are the Performance Improvements From Anaerobic Exercise?
Aerobic capacity
- Heavy resistance training does _ aerobic capacity unless the individual is initially deconditioned
not significantly affect
What Are the Performance Improvements From Anaerobic Exercise?
Anaerobic training enhances _
motor performance
What Are the Performance Improvements From Anaerobic Exercise?
Resistance training has been shown to increase
- Running economy
- Vertical jump
- Sprint speed
- Tennis serve velocity
- Swinging and throwing velocity
- Kicking performance
_ is defined as excessive
frequency, volume, or intensity of training that results in extreme fatigue, illness, or injury (which is often due to a lack of
sufficient rest, recovery, and perhaps nutrient intake)
Overtraining
Overtraining:
Excessive training on a short-term basis is called _
overreaching
What are the markers of anaerobic overtraining?
- Psychological effects:
decreased desire to train,
decreased joy from training
What are the markers of anaerobic overtraining?
- Acute _ increases beyond normal exercise-induced levels (sympathetic overtraining syndrome)
epinephrine and norepinephrine
What are the markers of anaerobic overtraining?
- _, although these occur too late to be a good predictor
Performance decrements
Mistakes that can lead to anaerobic overtraining
- Chronic use of high intensity or high volume or a combination of the two
- Too rapid a rate of progression
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Resistance training program design variables
- Needs analysis
- Exercise selection
- Training frequency
- Exercise order
- Training load and repetitions
- Volume
- Rest periods
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 1 - Needs Analysis
- Needs analysis is a two-stage process that
includes
- An evaluation of the requirements and
characteristics of the sport
– An assessment of the athlete
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 1 - Needs Analysis
- Movement analysis: body and limb movement
patterns and muscular involvement
- Physiological analysis: strength, power, hypertrophy, and muscular endurance priorities
- Injury analysis: common sites for joint and muscle
injury and causative factors
Evaluation of the sport
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 1 - Needs Analysis
- Type of training program
- Length of recent regular participation in previous training programs
- Level of intensity involved in previous training programs
- Degree of exercise technique experience
Assessment of the athlete
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 1 - Needs Analysis
- Assessment of the athlete
– Tests should relate to the athlete’s sport.
– Use the results of the movement analysis to select tests.
– After testing, compare results with normative or descriptive data to determine the athlete’s strengths and weaknesses
Physical testing and evaluation
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 1 - Needs Analysis
- Assessment of the athlete
– Typically to improve strength, power, hypertrophy, or muscular endurance.
– Concentrate on one training outcome per season
Primary resistance training goal
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 2 - Exercise selection
- Choosing exercises for a resistance training program requires knowing
- The movement and muscular requirements of the sport
- An athlete’s exercise technique experience
- Equipment available
- The amount of training time available
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 2 - Exercise selection
- Exercise type
– Recruit one or more large muscle areas
– Involve two or more primary joints
– Receive priority because of their direct application to the sport
Core exercises
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 2 - Exercise selection
- Exercise type
– Recruit smaller muscle areas
– Involve only one primary joint
– Considered less important to improving sport performance
Assistance exercises
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 2 - Exercise selection
- Movement analysis of the sport
– Sport-specific exercises
–> The more similar the training activity is to the actual sport movement, the greater the likelihood that there will be a positive transfer to that sport.
—-> This concept is called training _
specificity or specific adaptation to imposed demands (SAID)
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 2 - Exercise selection
- Do not assume that an athlete will perform an
exercise correctly.
- If there is any doubt, have the athlete demonstrate
the exercise, and provide instruction as needed.
Exercise technique experience
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 2 - Exercise selection
- Availability of resistance training _
equipment
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 2 - Exercise selection
- Available training time per session
– Prioritize _ when time is
limited
time-efficient exercises
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 3
- _ is the number of training
sessions completed in a given time period
Training frequency
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 3 - Training frequency
- For a resistance training program, a common
time period is _
– But it is important to look at longer periods to discern
bias
one week
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 3 - Training frequency
- _ affects the number of rest days needed between sessions
Training status
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 3 - Training frequency
- Training status
– A frequency of _ is
recommended for many athletes to allow sufficient
recovery between sessions
three workouts per week
Resistance training frequency table:
Training status = Beginner
Frequency guidelines (session per week) = _
2-3
Resistance training frequency table:
Training status = Intermediate
Frequency guidelines (session per week) = _
3-4
Resistance training frequency table:
Training status = Advanced
Frequency guidelines (session per week) = _
4-7
General training by sport season:
sport season = _
Sport practice = Low
Resistance Training = High
RT Goal = Hypertrophy & muscular endurance (initially); strength & power (later)
off-season
General training by sport season:
sport season = _
Sport practice = medium
Resistance Training = medium
RT Goal = sport & movement specific
Preseason
General training by sport season:
sport season = _
Sport practice = High
Resistance Training = Low
RT Goal = maintenance of preseason training goal
In-season
General training by sport season:
sport season = _
Sport practice = variable
Resistance Training = variable
RT Goal = Not specific (may include activities other than sport skill or resistance training)
Post season (active rest)
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 3 - Training frequency
- Training status
– More highly resistance-trained (intermediate or
advanced) athletes can augment their training by
using a _
split routine in which different muscle groups are trained on different days
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 3 - Training frequency
- Sport season
– Seasonal demands of the sport may limit the _
time available for resistance training
Resistance Training Frequency based on sport season:
Sport season = Off-season
Frequency guidelines (session per week) = _
4-6
Resistance Training Frequency based on sport season:
Sport season = Preseason
Frequency guidelines (session per week) = _
3-4
Resistance Training Frequency based on sport season:
Sport season = In-season
Frequency guidelines (session per week) = _
1-3
Resistance Training Frequency based on sport season:
Sport season = Post-season (active rest)
Frequency guidelines (session per week) = _
0-3
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 3 - Training frequency
- Training load and exercise type
– Athletes who train with maximal or near-maximal
loads require more _ before their next training session
recovery time
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 3 - Training frequency
- Other training
– Training frequency is influenced by the overall _
amount of physical stress
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 3 - Training frequency
- Other training
– Consider the effects of _
- Other aerobic or anaerobic training
- Sport skill practice
- Physically demanding occupations
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 4
- _ is the sequence of
resistance exercises performed during one
training session
Exercise order
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 4 - Exercise Order
- _ (such as the snatch, hang clean, power clean, and push jerk) should be performed first in a training session
- Followed by other _
- Then _
- Power exercises
- non-power core exercises
- assistance exercises
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 4 - Exercise Order
- A _ two sequentially performed exercises that stress two opposing muscles or muscle areas (i.e., an agonist and its antagonist)
superset involves
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 4 - Exercise Order
- A _ involves sequentially performing two different exercises for the same muscle group
compound set
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 5 - Training Load & Repetitions
- volume-load = _
weight units x repititions
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 5 - Training Load & Repetitions
- Arrangement of repetitions and sets affects the _, a measure of the quality of work performed (problem for a wearable device)
intensity value
Most simplistically refers to the amount of weight assigned to an exercise set; often characterized as the most critical aspect of a
resistance training program
Load
Greatest amount of weight that can be lifted with proper technique for only one repetition
1-repetition maximum (1RM)
Most weight lifted for a specified number of repetitions
repetition maximum (RM)
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 5 - Training Load & Repetitions
- Assigning load and repetitions based on the
training goal
– Once decided on, the training goal can be applied to determine specific _
via the RM continuum, a percentage of the 1RM, or
the results of multiple-RM testing
load and repetition assignments
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 5 - Training Load & Repetitions
- Assigning load and repetitions based on the
training goal
– Repetition maximum continuum
- Use relatively heavy loads if the goal is strength or power
- Use moderate loads for hypertrophy
- Use light loads for muscular endurance
Goal - Based Load & Reps:
Training goal = _
Load (%1RM) = >/equal to 85
Goal reps = </equal to 6
strength
Goal - Based Load & Reps:
Training goal = _
Load (%1RM) = 80-90
Goal reps = 1-2
Power: single-effort event
Goal - Based Load & Reps:
Training goal = _
Load (%1RM) = 75-85
Goal reps = 3-5
Power: multiple-effort event
Goal - Based Load & Reps:
Training goal = _
Load (%1RM) = 67-85
Goal reps = 6-12
Hypertrophy
Goal - Based Load & Reps:
Training goal = _
Load (%1RM) = </equal to 67
Goal reps = >/equal to 12
Muscular endurance
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 5 - Training Load & Repetitions
- Variation of the training load
- _ are designed to be full repetition maximums, the greatest resistance that can be successfully lifted for the goal number of repetitions
“Heavy day” loads
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 5 - Training Load & Repetitions
- Variation of the training load
- The loads for the other training days are reduced to
provide recovery after the heavy day while still
maintaining sufficient _
training frequency and volume
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 5 - Training Load & Repetitions
- Progression of the training load
– Timing load increases as _
the athlete adapts to the training stimulus, loads must be increased so that improvements will continue over time
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 5 - Training Load & Repetitions
- Progression of the training load
– Monitoring each athlete’s training and response helps the strength and conditioning professional know _
when and to what extent loads should be increased
The total amount of weight lifted in a training session
volume
A group of repetitions sequentially performed before the athlete stops to rest
set
The total number of repetitions performed during a workout session.
repetition-volume
The total number of sets multiplied by the number of repetitions per set,
multiplied by the weight lifted per rep.
volume-load
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 7 - Rest periods
- Maximal or near-maximal loads require longer rest
periods.
- Guidelines range from 2 to 5 minutes
Strength and power
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 7 - Rest periods
- Short to moderate rest periods are required.
– Typical strategies range from 30 seconds to 1.5
minutes
Hypertrophy
Principles of Anaerobic Exercise Prescription:
Step 7 - Rest periods
- Very short rest periods of 30 seconds or less are
required
Muscular endurance
The amount of blood
pumped by the heart in liters per minute (SV × HR)
cardiac output (or Q)
The quantity of blood ejected with each beat
stroke volume
Acute Responses to Aerobic Exercise:
Cardiovascular responses
- Cardiac output
– From rest to steady-state aerobic exercise, cardiac output initially _
increases rapidly, then more gradually, and subsequently reaches a plateau
Acute Responses to Aerobic Exercise:
Cardiovascular responses
- Cardiac output
– With maximal exercise, cardiac output may increase to _
four times the resting level
Acute Responses to Aerobic Exercise:
Cardiovascular responses
- Stroke volume
– End-diastolic volume is significantly _ (The volume of blood in the right and left ventricles after filling)
– At onset of exercise, _ stroke volume
- increased
- sympathetic stimulation increases
Acute Responses to Aerobic Exercise:
Cardiovascular responses
- Heart rate increases _ with increases in intensity
linearly
Acute Responses to Aerobic Exercise:
Cardiovascular responses
- Oxygen uptake
– _ during an acute bout of aerobic exercise
– Is directly related to the _
- Increases
- mass of exercising muscle,
metabolic efficiency, and exercise intensity
The greatest amount
of oxygen that can be used at the cellular level
for the entire body
maximal oxygen uptake
Estimated at 3.5 ml of oxygen per kilogram of body weight per minute (ml·kg–1·min–1)
- this value is defined as 1 metabolic equivalent (MET)
resting oxygen uptake
Acute Responses to Aerobic Exercise:
Cardiovascular responses
- Blood pressure
– _ estimates the pressure exerted against the arterial walls as blood is forcefully ejected during ventricular contraction
Systolic blood pressure
Acute Responses to Aerobic Exercise:
Cardiovascular responses
- Blood pressure
– _ is used to estimate the pressure exerted against the arterial walls when no blood is being forcefully ejected through the vessels
Diastolic blood pressure
Acute Responses to Aerobic Exercise:
Cardiovascular responses
- Control of local circulation
– During aerobic exercise, blood flow to active muscles is considerably _
– At the same time, blood flow to other organ systems is _
- increased by the dilation of local arterioles
- reduced by constriction of the arterioles
Acute Responses to Aerobic Exercise:
Respiratory responses
- Aerobic exercise provides for the greatest impact on
both _, as compared to other types of exercise
oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide production
Acute Responses to Aerobic Exercise:
Respiratory responses
- Gas responses
– During high-intensity aerobic exercise, the _ of oxygen and carbon dioxide cause the movement of gases across cell membranes
pressure gradients
Acute Responses to Aerobic Exercise:
Respiratory responses
- Gas responses
– The diffusing capacities of oxygen and carbon dioxide
_ with exercise, which facilitates their exchange
increase dramatically
Acute Responses to Aerobic Exercise:
Respiratory responses
- Blood transport of gases and metabolic by-products
– Most oxygen in blood is carried by _
hemoglobin
Acute Responses to Aerobic Exercise:
Respiratory responses
- Blood transport of gases and metabolic by-products
– During low- to moderate-intensity exercise, enough oxygen is available that _ because the removal rate is greater than or equal to the production rate
lactic acid does not accumulate
Chronic Adaptations
to Aerobic Exercise:
Cardiovascular adaptations
- Increases in maximal _
– Increased _ tone (relaxation) leads to
decreases in resting and submaximal exercise heart
rates
- cardiac output, stroke volume, and capillary density
- parasympathetic
Chronic Adaptations
to Aerobic Exercise:
Respiratory adaptations
- Training adaptations include increased _ with maximal exercise
tidal volume and breathing frequency
Chronic Adaptations
to Aerobic Exercise:
Neural adaptations
- _ is increased and _ of the contractile
mechanisms is delayed
- Efficiency
- fatigue
Chronic Adaptations
to Aerobic Exercise:
Muscular adaptations
- One of the fundamental adaptive responses to
aerobic endurance training is an increase in the _
- This adaptation allows the athlete to perform a given
_ after aerobic endurance training
- aerobic capacity of the trained musculature
- absolute intensity of exercise with greater ease
Chronic Adaptations
to Aerobic Exercise:
Bone and connective tissue adaptations
- In mature adults, the extent to which tendons,
ligaments, and cartilage grow and become stronger
is proportional to the _
intensity of the exercise
stimulus, especially from weight-bearing activities
Adaptations to Aerobic Endurance Training:
One of the most commonly measured adaptations to aerobic endurance training
is an increase in _
maximal oxygen uptake
associated with an increase in maximal cardiac output
Adaptations to Aerobic Endurance Training:
The _ is one of the most important factors in improving and maintaining aerobic power
intensity of training
Aerobic endurance training results in
- Reduced body fat
- Increased maximal oxygen uptake
- Increased running economy
- Increased respiratory capacity
- Lower blood lactate concentrations at submaximal exercise
- Increased mitochondrial and capillary densities
- Improved enzyme activity
External and Individual Factors Influencing Adaptations to Aerobic Endurance Training:
Altitude
- Changes begin to occur at elevations greater than
3,900 feet (1,200 m):
- Increased pulmonary ventilation (hyperventilation)
- Increased cardiac output at rest and during submaximal
exercise due to increases in heart rate
External and Individual Factors Influencing Adaptations to Aerobic Endurance Training:
- Breathing oxygen-enriched gas mixtures during rest periods or following exercise may positively affect exercise performance
- The procedure remains controversial
Hyperoxic breathing
External and Individual Factors Influencing Adaptations to Aerobic Endurance Training:
- Acute effects of tobacco smoking could _
exercise performance
impair
External and Individual Factors Influencing Adaptations to Aerobic Endurance Training:
- Can improve aerobic exercise performance and may enhance tolerance to certain environmental
conditions
- Is unethical and poses serious health risks
Blood doping
External and Individual Factors Influencing Adaptations to Aerobic Endurance Training:
- The upper limit of an individual’s _ dictates the absolute magnitude of the training adaptation
genetic potential
External and Individual Factors Influencing Adaptations to Aerobic Endurance Training:
Age and sex
- Maximal _ with age in
adults.
- Aerobic power values of women range from 73% to
85% of the values of men.
- The general physiological response to training is _
- aerobic power decreases
- similar in men and women
Overtraining:
Cardiovascular responses
- _ of training affect heart rate
Greater volumes
Overtraining:
Biochemical responses
- High training volume results in increased levels of _
- Muscle _ decreases with prolonged periods of overtraining
- creatine kinase, indicating muscle damage
- glycogen
Overtraining:
Endocrine responses
- Overtraining may result in a decreased _
- testosterone-to-cortisol ratio
- decreased secretion of GH, and
- changes in catecholamine levels
_ can lead to dramatic
performance decreases in all athletes
- the most common cause is intensified training without adequate recovery
Overtraining syndrome
Overtraining:
What are the markers of aerobic overtraining?
- Decreased performance
- Decreased percentage of body fat
- Decreased maximal oxygen uptake
- Altered blood pressure
- Increased muscle soreness
- Decreased muscle glycogen
- Altered resting heart rate
Overtraining:
What are the markers of aerobic overtraining?
- Increased submaximal exercise heart rate
- Decreased lactate
- Increased creatine kinase
- Altered cortisol concentration
- Decreased total testosterone concentration
- Decreased ratio of total testosterone to cortisol
- Decreased ratio of free testosterone to cortisol
Overtraining:
If inactivity, rather than proper recovery, follows
exercise, an athlete loses
training adaptations
Detraining
Overtraining:
The planned reduction of volume in training that
occurs before an athletic competition or a planned
recovery microcycle
Tapering
Physiologic Consequences of Aerobic Training:
Peripheral Circulation
- Increased capillary densities
- Increased ability to shunt blood away from core to
working tissues - Increases in myoglobin content of skeletal muscle
- Increase number of mitochondria
Physiologic Consequences of Aerobic Training:
Blood
- increased Plasma Volume
- Increase Erythrocytes
- Increased Hemoglobin
- Increased DPG 2,3
Physiologic Consequences of Aerobic Training:
Muscle Metabolism
- as a result of the increased mitochondrial densities _ substrate increases
free fatty acid use as an energy
Physiologic Consequences of Aerobic Training:
Muscle Fibers
- _ increase fatty acid and carbohydrate oxidative capacities
- _ make physiologic and
morphologic changes to resemble type I fibers in function and appearance
- Type I fibers
- Type IIa fibers (FOG)
Physiologic Consequences of Aerobic Training:
- Exercise has a tendency
to increase concentrations of most hormones while at
the same time leveling off peak concentrations
Endocrine Function
Physiologic Consequences of Aerobic Training:
Enzymatic Adaptations
- Enzyme activity associated with oxidative energy pathways _ while glycolytic enzyme activity _
- increases
- remains unchanged
Aerobic Training (Intensity):
Max Heart Rate Formula
220-Age = Max Heart Rate (MHR)
- MHR x .60 = 60% MHR (expressed in BPM)
- MHR x .90 = 90% MHR
- This 60 to 90% is the target heart rate
Aerobic Training (Intensity):
Karvonen Method
- Resting Heart Rate is subtracted from MHR
- This number is the heart rate reserve HRR
- HRR x .60 and .80
- Add these values to the RH = Target HR
Aerobic Training (Duration):
Lactate threshold training
- Tempo Runs: 20 min run at about 80% MHR over flat terrain
- Cruise Intervals: 5 to 6 one mile repeats with a one minute recovery period again at 80 to 85% MHR
- Interval Training: Bouts of intense running with active rest periods equal to the exercise time
- Fartlek (Swedish) – Continuous run broken up with sprints
Aerobic Training (Frequency):
Deconditioned people trying improve fitness slowly
2 days a week
Aerobic Training (Frequency):
5 day a week appears to be optimum for improving _
VO-2 and limiting injuries
Aerobic Training (Frequency):
Weight loss generally requires a week of varied work
5 to 7 days
Aerobic Training (Progression)
- Increase Duration before you increase Intensity
- When you increase Intensity, decrease duration for several work-outs
- Mix hard and easy days
- Watch for signs of over-training
Children:
Chronological age versus biological age
- _ refers to a period of time in which secondary sex characteristics develop and a child is transformed into a young adult
Puberty
Children:
Chronological age versus biological age
- Children _, and there are
substantial interindividual differences in physical development at any given chronological age
do not grow at a constant rate
Children:
Muscle and bone growth
When the epiphyseal plate becomes completely ossified, the long bones stop growing
Growth cartilage in children is located at the epiphyseal plate, the joint surface, and
the apophyseal insertions.
- Damage to the growth cartilage may impair the growth and development of the affected bone.
- This risk can be reduced with _
appropriate exercise
technique, sensible progression, and instruction by qualified strength and
conditioning professionals
The growing child:
Developmental changes in muscular strength
- On average, peak strength is usually attained by _ and between the ages of _
- age 20 in untrained women
- 20 and 30 in untrained men
Children:
Youth resistance training
- Responsiveness to resistance training
– Strength gains of roughly _ are typically observed in untrained preadolescent children following short-term (8-20 week) resistance training programs.
– Data suggest that training-induced strength gains in
children are impermanent and tend to return to untrained control group values during the detraining period
30% to 40%
Preadolescent boys and girls can significantly improve their strength above and beyond growth and maturation with _
- _, as
opposed to hypertrophic factors, are primarily responsible for these gains
- resistance training
- Neurological factors
Children:
Youth resistance training
- Potential benefits
Participation in a youth resistance training program can influence many health- and fitness-related measures
Children:
Youth resistance training
- Potential risks and concerns
Appropriately prescribed youth resistance training programs are relatively safe
Children:
Youth resistance training
- Program design considerations for children
– Consider quality of instruction and rate of progression
– Focus on _
skill improvement, personal successes, and having fun
Children:
- _ Focus (establish motor pattern)
- Stability at _
- Then _
- Technique
- Speed
- loading
Children:
How can we reduce the risk of overuse injuries in youth?
- Parents should be
educated about the benefits and risks of competitive sports
Children:
How can we reduce the risk of overuse injuries in youth?
- Youth coaches should implement _
well-planned recovery strategies
Children:
How can we reduce the risk of overuse injuries in youth?
- Boys and girls should be encouraged to participate
in a _
variety of sports and activities
Program design considerations for children:
Each child should understand the _
benefits and risks associated with resistance training
Program design considerations for children:
_ should supervise training sessions
Competent and caring fitness professionals
Program design considerations for children:
All equipment should be in _
good repair and properly
sized to fit each child
Program design considerations for children:
_ should be performed
before resistance training
Dynamic warm-up exercises
Youth resistance training guidelines:
Carefully monitor each child’s _ to the exercise stress
tolerance
Youth resistance training guidelines:
Begin with _
light loads
Youth resistance training guidelines:
Depending on needs and goals, _ on a variety of exercises can be performed
one to three sets of 6 to 15 repetitions
Youth resistance training guidelines:
Advanced multijoint exercises may be incorporated into the program if appropriate _
loads are used and the focus remains on proper form
Youth resistance training guidelines:
_ per week are recommended
Two or three non-consecutive training sessions
Youth resistance training guidelines:
The resistance training program should be _ throughout the year
systematically varied
Sex differences:
Body size and composition
- Before puberty there are essentially _ in height, weight, and body size between boys and girls
no differences
Sex differences:
Body size and composition
- Adult women tend to have _ than adult males
more body fat and less muscle and bone
Sex differences:
Body size and composition
- Women tend to be _ in total body weight than men
lighter
Sex differences:
Strength and power output
- In terms of absolute strength, women generally have about _
two-thirds the strength of men
Sex differences:
Strength and power output
- If comparisons are made relative to fat-free mass or muscle cross-sectional area, differences in strength between men and women tend to _
disappear
Resistance training for female athletes:
Women can increase their _ as men or faster
strength at the same rate
Resistance training for female athletes:
How do the training needs differ between women
and men?
They don’t
Interrelationships between energy availability, menstrual function, and bone mineral density
Female athlete triad
Female athlete triad:
- Caused by high training volumes or intensities with
inadequate _
- Essential body fat for women is _
- dietary intake
- 10-13%
Program design considerations for women:
Female athletes are up to _ than male players
six times more likely to incur an ACL injury
Program design considerations for women:
Anterior cruciate ligament injury
- _ leading to abnormal biomechanics may all be contributing factors
Joint laxity, ligament size, and neuromuscular deficiency
Program design considerations for women:
Anterior cruciate ligament injury
- Strength and conditioning professionals should ensure that females _ within a variety of environments
learn, and can repeatedly demonstrate, correct
movement mechanics
Older Adults:
Age-related changes in musculoskeletal
health
- Loss of bone and muscle with age increases the risk
for _
falls, hip fractures, and long-term disability
Older Adults:
Age-related changes in musculoskeletal
health
- Bones become _ with age because of a decrease in bone mineral content that causes an increase in bone porosity
fragile
Older Adults:
Age-related changes in musculoskeletal
health
- After age _ there is a decrease in the cross-
sectional areas of individual muscles, along with a decrease in muscle density and an increase in intramuscular fat
30
A bone mineral density between −1 and −2.5 standard deviations (SD) of the young adult mean
Osteopenia
A bone mineral density below −2.5 SD of the young adult mean
osteoporosis
Older Adults:
Age-related changes in neuromotor function
- Seniors are at increased risk of _
- Factors include decreased muscle strength and power,
decreased reaction time, and impaired balance and
postural stability
falling
Older Adults:
Age-related changes in neuromotor function
- Research shows that _ can be effective in improving neuromotor function
and preventing falls
physical activity interventions
Older Adults:
Responsiveness to resistance training in
older adults
- Seniors who participate in progressive resistance
training programs show significant improvements in _
- Muscular strength and power
- Muscle mass
- Bone mineral density
- Functional capabilities
Aerobic, resistance, and balance exercise are beneficial for older adults, but only _ can increase
muscular strength, muscular power, and muscle mass
resistance training
