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NEUR-210 > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Explain the case of HM

A

HM had a bilateral removal of his interior temporal lobe to cure him of his epilepsy; this caused an episodic memory deficit where he could not remember new events but could remember actions (procedural memory)

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2
Q

Explain the case of Tan

A

Tan experiences a stroke to the inferior frontal lobe causing him to only be able to say the word “tan”

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2
Q

Explain how Tan related to Broca’s

A

Tan could understand words and process what he wanted to say but it couldn’t come out –> Broca’s Aphasia in the inferior frontal lobe, now known as Broca’s Area

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2
Q

Explain Wernicke’s Aphasia

A

Lesions in the posterior temporal lobe (now known as Wernicke’s Area) cause deficits in language understanding in hearing or writing, also images

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3
Q

Descartes

A

Dualism: body and mind are separate in controlling behavior, but there’s a link between them

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4
Q

Galvani

A

Electrical stimulation of frog’s nerve leads to muscle contraction

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5
Q

Müller

A

Differentiated between electrical pathways; asked how we can know which signals convery which information

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6
Q

Flourens

A

Ablation method: removed different parts of the system to see how that affects behavior; localization of basic brain functions

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7
Q

Fritsch and Hitzig

A

Studied electrical pathways and patterns during seizures to discover systematic progression in muscle contractions; localization of muscle control in the brain

Experimented with electrical stimulation of motor cortex to discover the lobes control the opposite side of the body

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8
Q

Darwin

A

Discovered evolution due to selective advantage

Suggested link between structure and function of brain (e.g. large cortex)

Materialism: behavior can be explained by the physical functions of the brain and nervous system

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9
Q

Ramón y Cajal

A

Used Golgi’s staining techniques to draw neurons and supporting cells; discovered specific types of cells in brain and nervous system –> The Neuron Doctrine!!

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10
Q

Layers of the skull

A
  1. skin of scalp
  2. periosteum
  3. bone of skull
  4. dura mater: periosteal layer and meningeal layer
  5. subdural space
  6. arachnoid
  7. subarachnoid space
  8. pia mater
  9. official brain: cerebral cortex and white matter
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11
Q

The blood-brain barrier

A

Specialized capillaries that restrict movement of substances into the brain; extracellular fluid around neurons maintain specific composition

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12
Q

The ventricular system

A

A set of ventricles where cerebrospinal fluid is produced and circulated throughout the brain

  • lateral ventricles
  • interventricular foramen
  • third ventricles
  • cerebral aqueduct
  • fourth ventricle
  • central canal
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13
Q

Stages of brain development in utero

A

week 4: neurogenesis
week 8: neuronal selection and migration from ventricular zone
week 12: differentiation and myelination
week 20: synaptogenesis

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14
Q

Describe the development of the neural tube

A

At 4 weeks in utero, neural tube made up of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain is formed

Neural tube forms three vesicles:
- prosencephalon (forebrain)
- mesencephalon (midbrain)
- rhombencephalon (hindbrain)

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15
Q

Describe the development of the three vesicles

A

At 5 weeks, the three vesicles become five vesicles:
- prosencephalon –> telencephalon and diencephalon
- mesencephalon remains the same
- rhombencephalon –> metencephalon and myelencephalon

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16
Q

Describe the development of the five vesicles into adult brain structures

A

Telencephalon –> cerebrum (cerebral cortex, white matter, basal nuclei)

Diencephalon –> thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus (pineal gland)

Mesencephalon –> midbrain in brainstem

Metencephalon –> pons and cerebellum

Myelencephalon –> medulla oblongata

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17
Q

Structures of the brainstem

A
  • spinal cord
  • medulla oblongata
  • pons
  • midbrain
  • (thalamus)
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18
Q

Functions of the brainstem

A

Basic life functions: respiratory centers, cardiovascular centers, relay stations between the brain and spinal cord, arousal (consciousness) centers

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19
Q

Functions of the thalamus

A

The relay station between incoming sensory information and the brain cortices; contains many nuclei with different inputs and outputs

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20
Q

Functions of the hypothalamus

A

Regulates the physiological state (four f’s: fighting, fleeing, feeding, fucking) by acting on the autonomic nervous system

Regulates the endocrine system through the pituitary gland

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21
Q

Structures of the limbic system

A
  • hippocampus
  • amygdala
  • cingulate cortex
  • septum
  • fornix
  • olfactory bulb
  • mammillary body
  • entorhinal cortex
  • septal nuclei
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22
Q

Functions of the limbic system

A

Hippocampus: memory processing

Amygdala: fear processing

Together, responsible for motivation, behavioral drives, emotional processing, and olfactory processing

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23
Q

Structures of the basal ganglia

A
  • putamen
  • globus pallidus
  • caudate nucleus
  • subthalamic nucleus
  • substantia nigra
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24
Q

Functions of the basal ganglia

A

Regulate the initiation of voluntary movement by communicating with the motor cortex for the release or inhibition of movement

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25
Q

Functions of the cerebellum

A

Balance, visually guided movements, fine motor skills, coordination

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26
Q

Describe the five main fissures of the cerebral cortex

A
  • central sulcus: coronal fissure separates the frontal and parietal lobes
  • longitudinal fissure: mid-sagittal fissure separates the two hemispheres
  • lateral fissure: transverse-ish fissure separates the temporal lobe from the frontal lobe and part of the parietal lobe
  • parieto-occipital sulcus and preoccipital notch: two minor sulci separating the occipital lobe from the parietal and temporal lobes, respectively
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27
Q

Structures and functions of the frontal lobe

A
  • prefrontal cortex and prefrontal association area: coordinate info from other association areas, control some behaviors and reasoning skills
  • primary motor cortex and motor association area: skeletal muscle movement
  • Broca’s Area
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28
Q

Structures and functions of the parietal lobe

A

Primary somatosensory cortex and sensory association area: receive sensory info from skin, musculoskeletal system, visceral organs, taste buds

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29
Q

Structures and functions of the temporal lobe

A
  • auditory cortex and auditory association area: hearing
  • Wernicke’s Area
30
Q

Structures and functions of the occipital lobe

A

Visual cortex and visual association area: vision

31
Q

Gustatory cortex

A

Taste

32
Q

Olfactory cortex

A

Smell

33
Q

Structures of the peripheral nervous system

A
  • cranial nerves
  • spinal nerves
  • somatic motor system
  • autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic)
34
Q

Cranial nerves

A

12 pairs of nerves innervating the head and neck, involved in smell, hearing, eye movement, facial movement, swallowing, etc.

Exception of vagus nerves which act on thoracic and abdominal muscles

35
Q

Spinal motor neurons

A

Sensory info comes in dorsal root of spinal cord and leaves through ventral root; communication occurs inside grey matter of spinal cord and signals move on through white matter tracts to brain or relevant muscles

36
Q

Sympathetic branch of ANS

A

Controls fight or flight in the thoracic and lumbar areas of the spinal cord

37
Q

Parasympathetic branch of ANS

A

Controls rest and relax in cranial and sacral areas of the spinal cord

38
Q

Four types of glial cells

A
  • astrocytes: structural support and cleanup
  • oligodendrocytes: support axons that myelinate CNS
  • Schwann cells: myelinate the PNS
  • microglia: perform phagocytosis and protect CNS from microorganisms
39
Q

Ion channels

A

Proteins in the lipid bilayer of neurons that allow ions to move in and out of the cell and alter the voltage; specific to size or charge of ion; three types:
- resting/passive
- voltage-gated
- ligand-gated

40
Q

Forces behind resting membrane potential

A

Inside of neuron is -70mV relative to outside due to:
- non-uniform distribution of ions
- gradients (concentration and electrical)
- unequal permeability
- ion pumps

41
Q

Ion distribution

A

Maintained by passive ion channels:
- potassium (K+)
- sodium (Na+)
- chloride (Cl-)

Inside has a high concentration of K+ and anions (neg.), while outside has a high concentration of Na+ and Cl-

42
Q

Concentration gradient

A

Powered by diffusion:

150 mM K+ inside neuron vs. 5mM K+ outside neuron –> K+ wants to exit neuron (90 mV pressure)

15 mM Na+ inside neuron vs. 150 mM Na+ outside neuron –> Na+ wants to enter neuron (70 mV pressure)

10 mM Cl- inside neuron vs. 120 mM Cl- outside neuron –> Cl- wants to enter neuron (70 mV pressure)

43
Q

Electrical gradient

A

Powered by electrostatic pressure (charges) due to negative charge inside neuron:

K+ wants to enter neuron (70 mV pressure)

Na+ wants to enter neuron (70 mV pressure)

Cl- wants to exit neuron (70 mV pressure)

44
Q

Equilibrium potential

A

Found due to the Nernst Equation:

K+ has -96 mV potential
Na+ and +60 mV potential
Cl- has -64 mV potential

45
Q

Permeability of passive ion channels

A

Found by Goldman Equation

Membrane is more permeable to K+ than to Na+

46
Q

Sodium-Potassium Pump

A

Pushes against the concentration gradients by exchanging 3 Na+ into the neuron and 2 K+ out of the neuron in order to maintain a high concentration of Na+ outside and K+ inside

47
Q

Describe state of Na+

A
  • low intracellular concentration
  • high extracellular concentration
  • high driving forces into neuron
  • low membrane permeability
  • results in medium net flux into neuron
48
Q

Describe state of K+

A
  • high intracellular concentration
  • low extracellular concentration
  • low (but present) driving force out of neuron
  • medium membrane permeability
  • results in medium net flux out of neuron
49
Q

Describe state of Cl-

A
  • low intracellular concentration
  • high extracellular concentration
  • no driving forces
  • low membrane permeability
  • no net flux in or out of neuron
50
Q

Describe state of anions

A
  • high intracellular concentration
  • no extracellular concentration
  • high driving forces out of neuron
  • no membrane permeability
  • no net flux in or out of neuron
51
Q

Action potential

A

“All or nothing” unit of electrical activity in the brain

Is able to happen due to resting potential, present driving forces, and voltage-gated ion channels at axon hillock

Discovered by Hodgkin and Huxley’s work with a squid

52
Q

Depolarization

A

When neuron reaches threshold around -60 mV

Na+ gates open, Na+ enters neuron and increases mV

K+ channels slowly begin to open

53
Q

Repolarization

A

Once mV reaches upper threshold around +40 mV, K+ channels open completely

K+ rushed out of neuron; mV begins to drop

54
Q

Hyperpolarization

A

K+ channels close at around -70 mV, but mV continues to decrease to around -80 mV due to residual ions

Na+/K+ pump corrects imbalance and mV recovers to -70 mV

55
Q

TTX and TEA toxins

A

TTX found in pufferfish: blocks Na+ channels so depolarization never happens and action potential cannot begin

TEA: blocks K+ channels so repolarization takes much longer to complete

56
Q

Refractory periods

A

Help keep the action potential unidirectional

Absolute: from the beginning until the end of repolarization

Relative: until hyperpolarization is over

57
Q

Electrical synapses

A

Tight junctions: connexons bridge the lipid bilayer of two neurons where the electrical current then directly flows through; bidirectional and unmodifiable

58
Q

Chemical synapses

A

Triggers within the neurons cause the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft where they bind to receptors; can be excitatory or inhibitory

59
Q

Describe what Otto Loewi did

A

Stimulated vagus nerve (slows heartbeat) of a heart in solution, then placed another heart without a vagus nerve in the same solution and the heartbeat of the second heart also slowed

Inferred that the nerve was releasing a chemical (ACh) into the solution

60
Q

Role of Ca++

A

Voltage-gated Ca++ channels in the neuron terminal open at the end of an action potential; since Ca++ is more concentrated outside the cell, ions flow in and trigger the neurotransmitter vesicles to bind to the membrane and open into the cleft

61
Q

Dale’s Criteria for neurotransmitters

A
  1. synthesized in pre-synaptic cell
  2. Ca++ dependent vesicles release from pre-synaptic membrane
  3. application mimics pre-synaptic activation
  4. mechanism of breakdown in cleft
62
Q

Amino acid neurotransmitters

A

Glutamate: the main excitatory neurotransmitter (action potential is more likely in the post-synaptic cell)

GABA: the main inhibitory neurotransmitter (action potential is less likely in the post-synaptic cell)

63
Q

Monoamine neurotransmitters

A

Dopamine: involved in basal ganglia and reward processing

Noradrenaline/norepinephrine: fight or flight and other sympathetic effects

Serotonin: “feel good” chemical but also has other wide-ranging effects

64
Q

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A

Neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular junction that stops the ability of the muscle to contract; also present in brain and ANS

65
Q

Ionotropic receptors

A

The neurotransmitter binds directly to the ion channel (aka the ionotropic receptor) which immediately opens

66
Q

Metabotropic receptors

A

The neurotransmitter binds to the receptor which activates the G-protein inside the neuron, triggering the a-subunit to break away and either bind to the ion channel directly (opening the channel) or bind to an enzyme which signals a second messenger to open an ion channel

67
Q

Role of receptors in post-synaptic neuron

A

Receptors decide whether a neurotransmitter is inhibitory or excitatory – not the neurotransmitter itself

Metabotropic receptors can each have a varying effect based on the enzymes and ion channels involved

68
Q

Excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP)

A

Involved receptors usually gate cation channels (Na+ channel or Na+/K+ pump)

Causes depolarization of post-synaptic neuron –> increased likelihood of action potential occurring

69
Q

Inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP)

A

Involved receptors usually gate anion channels (Cl- or K+ ion channels)

Causes hyperpolarization in post-synaptic neuron –> decreased chance of action potential occurring

70
Q

Integration

A

Each neuron receives many signals from many neurons at once; has to sum up the EPSPs and IPSPs to decide whether or not an action potential occurs

This decision occurs in the axon hillock, so a pre-synaptic neuron’s distance from the hillock may impact its influence

71
Q

Temporal summation

A

If one pre-synaptic neuron is sending many EPSPs one after the other in quick succession, a large depolarization will occur and trigger an action potential

72
Q

Spatial summation

A

If many pre-synaptic neurons are each sending EPSPs, then these can cause a large enough depolarization when added together to trigger an action potential

73
Q

Where can external modulators act?

A

Pre-synaptic disruption: alters neurotransmitter release into synaptic cleft

Disruption in the cleft: prevents the breakdown of neurotransmitters

Post-synaptic disruption: agonists and antagonists compete for receptor sites

74
Q

Explain the roles of agonists and antagonists

A

Agonists mimic the neurotransmitter when binding to the receptor

Antagonists bind to the receptor and block the neurotransmitter from binding

Can bind competitively (directly blocks neurotransmitter site) or noncompetitively (allows neurotransmitter to also bind, but still exerts function)

75
Q

Explain the mechanism of botulinum toxin

A

Botulinum toxin (used in Botox) is an antagonist that inhibits the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft (pre-synaptic disruption), causing temporary or long term and potentially fatal muscle paralysis

NEUR-210 (3 decks)

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