Exam 1 Flashcards
What are the Levels of Ecology
Individuals (Organismal)
Population
Community
Ecosystem
Landscape
Biosphere/Global
What is Organismal Ecology
focused on the Physiology, Morphology, Behavior, and Evolution
e.g., how do zebras regulate internal water balance?
What is Population?
group of interbreeding individuals of SINGLE species living in same area
What is Population Ecology
variables impacting population size, distribution, and changes over time, evolution abiotic-biotic interactions
e.g., what factors control zebra populations?
What is Community?
group of populations of DIFFERENT species in same area
What is Community Ecology
how species interactions affect evolution, structure, and organization of involved species
What is an Ecosystem?
community of organisms + physical and chemical environment
What is Ecosystem Ecology
energy flow, chemical cycling between organisms and environment
What is a Landscape?
“mosaic” of connected ecosystems (including terrestrial and aquatic)
What is Landscape Ecology
exchanges of energy, materials, and organisms across ecosystems
e.g., how do vegetated corridors affect rate of movement among isolated forest fragments?
What is the Biosphere?
global ecosystem, sum of the planet’s ecosystems and landscapes
What are the three options in counting individuals?
- “Count Everything”
-large, non-motile organisms - “Quadrat” Method
-sample of total population
-appropriate of relatively immotile organisms - “Mark-and-Recapture”
-highly motile organisms, often in difficult to access areas
What is the formula for Mark-Recapture?
(# marked & released x # captured in 2nd sampling) / # marked that are recaptured
= population size
Some organisms are elusive and hard to count.
What are some ways to count these organisms?
-listen/tally vocalizations
-camera trapping
-counting scat (poop)
-pickup roadkill
-yield from fishing/hunting efforts
100 kingfishers are captured and marked.
Several days later, 20 birds are caught, and 10 are marked.
What is the estimated population size?
100 x 20 / 10
= 200 pop. size
Define the following distribution types for individuals across a landscape:
Clumped
Regular
Random
Clumped: unequal chance of being anywhere
-most common
-e.g. sea stars
Regular: “uniform,” evenly spaced
-e.g. penguins
Random: equal chance of being anywhere
-e.g. dandelions
Define Ecology
scientific study of RELATIONSHIPS between organisms and between organisms and the ENVIRONMENT
T/F: A hypothesis is a proposition to explain natural phenomena made with limited evidence that is the starting point for further testing
TRUE
T/F: red squirrels who actively defend territories is an example of a group most likely to exhibit UNIFORM DISPERSION
TRUE
What does Habitat Fragmentation lead to?
decreased habitat area
increased isolation
“edge effects”
What are some natural and anthropogenic causes of fragmentation?
fire
flooding
lava flows
roads
urbanization
border walls
dams
Which islands, large or small, harbor more species?
large islands
-bigger target for migrants
-support larger populations
-multiple habitat types
Do islands closer or farther from the “source” have more species?
closer to the source
-more species migrants arrive
-“rescue effect”
What does Darlington’s Rule regarding island area and number of species state?
10x increase in island area leads to 2x increase in number of species
As species are added, what is the affect to Immigration? Extinction?
Immigration = slows as species are added
Extinction = increases as species accumulate
-larger pool
-lower abundance/species
-greater competition for resources
What are Subpopulations?
localized patches of individuals, together forming a population
What is a Geographic Range?
distribution of a species, the collective occurrence of populations
What is a Metapopulation?
“population of populations” in discrete habitat patches linked by occasional dispersal
An area that contains SUITABLE HABITAT for the organism of interest is the _________
Patch
An area that contains UNSUITABLE HABITAT for the organism of interest is the _________
Matrix
A local population that occupies a patch is the __________
Deme
What is it called when a patch is occupied, then not occupied, the occupied again?
Turnover
An area of habitat that is SAFE for the organism to move through (from one patch to another) is called a _________
Corridor
Typically small patches that can be used as resting areas for the organism to move between larger patches is considered a _____________
Stepping-stone Patch
There are Four Models of Metapopulation Theory - what are they?
- Classical Model
- Patchy Model
- Non-Equilibrium Model
- Mainland-Island Model
What is a Unitary Organism?
species composed of discrete individuals that are EASILY RECOGNIZED as NATURAL UNITS
e.g., humans, dogs, lion
What is a Modular Organism?
species composed of MULTIPLE subunits that are capable of independent function
e.g., corals, plans
-usually harder to determine
A portion of a modular organism that exists separately at least in part is the _____________
Ramet
e.g., stems of a plant; polyps of a coral
“Genetic individuals” consisting of ALL the RAMETS that originated from a single zygote are the _________
Genet
Is a frog Unitary or Modular?
Unitary
Is a plant Unitary or Modular?
Modular
What components are included in Change in Population Size?
Births
+ Immigrants Entering Pop.
- Deaths
- Emigrants Leaving Pop.
What is the difference between a Iteroparous breeder versus a Semelparous breeder?
Iteroparous = breed throughout entire life
Semelparous = die after giving birth
In exponential growth, r represents __________, meaning that greater values of r lead to _____________
intrinsic growth rate
faster population growth
What is the equation for Exponential Growth
MUST KNOW FOR TEST…WON’T BE GIVEN!!
N(t+1) = N(t) x e^rt
e = exp. of natural log (2.72)
t = time
r = intrinsic rate of increase (births - deaths)
What makes Logistic Population Growth a more accurate model to use?
populations limited by food, space, other resources in the environment
What is Carrying Capacity (K)?
maximum population size the environment can support
e.g., moose in Isle Royale
What is the Allee Effect?
negative or reduced per capital growth rate when population density is LOW
Can wolf populations grow at an exponential rate?
No - will exhibit logistic growth with repeated oscillations between prey (moose)
What is Demography?
scientific study of population size and population parameters that influence population size
includes:
-mortality
-birth
-migration
-rates of pop. growth over time
In life tables, Vertical Analysis refers to _____________
study individuals across AGE/STAGE CLASSES at CURRENT TIME
in life tables, Horizontal Analysis refers to __________
follows individuals of an early age THROUGH TIME as they age/grow
What is a Cohort Life Table? What about a Static Life Table?
Cohort = monitor a cohort throughout its LIFETIME
Static = record AGE AT DEATH for a large number of individuals in a population
What is a Life Table and its primary components?
summary of mortality-related parameters for a population
-population size (nx)
-survival rate (lx)
-number dying (dx)
-mortality rate (qx)
What is the purpose of a Life Table?
perform survivorship analysis
determine age- and stage- structure in populations
There are 3 generalized types of Survivorship Curves.
What is Type I and an example?
low mortality until late in life
e.g., humans, dall sheep
There are 3 generalized types of Survivorship Curves.
What is Type II and an example?
constant rate of mortality through life
e.g., birds, reptiles, rodents
There are 3 generalized types of Survivorship Curves.
What is Type III and an example?
high mortality early in life, but low in later
e.g., plants, oysters
*those that disperse propagules into environment
Most plant species exhibit which type of survivorship curve?
Type III
What does Fecundity refer to?
“Reproductive Value/Potential”
When referring to the “fitness” of individuals, what does this mean?
offspring produced
Higher Offspring = Higher Fitness
Why do Fecundity Schedules only incorporate the average number of female offspring produced per female at each age class (mx)?
Females are the ones to reproduce - so they matter more with offspring than males (who do not reproduce)
Say you have a species that is a hermaphrodite.
What is the count in the Fecundity Schedule (mx)?
ALL offspring counted
What is the MAIN FACTOR with survivorship in determining population size changes?
Reproductive Rate (mx)
By multiplying the Proportion Surviving with Fecundity (i.e., avg number of female offspring per female individual), what is the ending value represented?
HINT: sum of lxmx
Net Reproductive Rate
When R0 > 1
Population size ___________
NOTE: R0 is net replacement rate
Grows
When R0 < 1
Population size ___________
Declines
When R0 = 1
Population size ___________
Stays constant
T/F: Predation is a WEAK selective force?
FALSE
T/F: Both predators and prey have adaptations to predation
TRUE
e.g., Hares get faster (slow ones die off)
Describe the following Antipredation strategies:
Crypsis
“camouflage”
e.g., Canyon Tree Frog
Describe the following Antipredation strategies:
Aposematic Coloration
Coloration that WARNS and DETERS predators
-can be toxic!
e.g., rough-skinned newt (has tetrotoxin, or a neurotoxin!)
What is the difference between Batesian Mimicry and Mullerian Mimicry?
Batesian Mimicry = harmless species mimics harmful species
-e.g., caterpillar mimicking snake
Mullerian Mimicry = Two harmful species resemble each other
-e.g., cuckoo bee and yellow jacket
Describe the following Antipredation strategies:
Defensive Structures
literally the name
e.g., Moose and their antlers; pufferfish and spines
Describe the following Antipredation strategies:
Vigilance
sight, smell, sound
e.g., hares and their eyes for vision behind them
Describe the following Antipredation strategies:
Habitat Refuge
areas where prey run and hide
e.g., water, burrows, up a tree, into air
Without Habitat Refuges, what happens to prey?
Likely, predator drives prey to EXTINCTION
With Habitat Refuges, what happens to prey?
Likely, predator and prey numbers become OSCILLATED
Describe the following Antipredation strategies:
Life History
“out of sync” with predators
e.g., cicadas,
What is Herbivory
consumption of living plant tissues for food or water
Herbivory is similar to predation, expect herbivory may not _______________
kill the “prey”
What are some adaptations by Herbivores?
-specialized digestive systems
-chemical sensors (toxic vs nontoxic)
-eat specific plant parts
What are some adaptations by Plants in response to Herbivores?
-spines, thorns
-chemical toxins (bad taste -> death)
-mutualism with other species
What is Frugivory?
Fruit eaters
What are the various types of eating for Herbivores?
- Grazing/browsing
-e.g. deer - Stem-boring
-caterpillar - Leaf-mining
- Frugivory
- Xylem-feeding
-tissue brings water from soil - Phloem-feeding
-sugar fluid moved around plant
What is Reduced Apparency?
Hiding in space/time
What is shared in Dormancy?
plant remains dormant as a way to hide from predators (hang out as meristem during fall - refuge!)
What is a Parasitism interaction?
+/-
e.g., ticks and birds
What is the difference between Endoparasites and Ectoparasites?
Endo: within host
-malaria hemoparasite
Ecto: upon host
-tick on finch
What is a Mutualism interaction?
+/+
e.g., cows and gut bacteria; angiosperms and pollinators
What is a Commensalism interaction
+/0
e.g., water buffalo and cattle egrets cleaning off parasites
What interactions exist between a tick on a dog and the dog?
+/-
“Parasitism”
What is an Obligate Species Interaction?
at least one species could NOT grow or reproduce without the other
DEPENDENT!
What is a Facultative Species Interaction?
BOTH organisms DO BETTER with their mutualist, but can survive and reproduce without it
Regarding species interaction partnerships, what are the following:
Trophic Partnership
specialized partnerships for obtaining energy and nutrients
e.g., grouper and moray eels co-hunt for prey
Regarding species interaction partnerships, what are the following:
Defensive Partnership
partnerships providing PROTECTION against herbivores, predators, or parasites
e.g., Ant-Acadia (ants protect against herbivores)
-reduce competition for water, nutrients for Acadia!
Regarding species interaction partnerships, what are the following:
Dispersive Partnership
partnerships in which animals disperse pollen or seeds of plants, generally for FOOD REWARD
e.g., flying foxes disperse fruit/seed
Regarding Cleaning Symbioses, what is a “Cheater?”
cleans fish but also eats part of them too
What interaction occurs between Cleaner and Client?
Not always clear…
can be some of each: mutualism, commensalism, or parasitism
What is Interference Competition?
DIRECT interactions
What is the difference between Intraspecific and Interspecific interactions regarding competition?
Intra: between individuals of SAME species
Inter: between individuals of DIFFERENT species
What best describes the interaction of Competition?
-/-
What is Exploitative Competition?
use of limited resources
T/F: Competition favors specialization
TRUE
What is a Niche?
“Fit” of a species to ecological conditions
There are 3 thoughts to the Niche. Define the following one:
Grinnellian Niche
species fill “SPACES” determined by habitat
There are 3 thoughts to the Niche. Define the following one:
Eltonian Niche
the “ROLE” a species plays in habitat with respect to resources and enemies
There are 3 thoughts to the Niche. Define the following one:
Hutchinsonian Niche
n-dimensional hyper volume of environmental conditions and resources
-not simply just space or role…it is complex and includes all
What is the difference between a Fundamental Niche and a Realized Niche?
Fundamental: sum of resource conditions and environmental parameters in which a species can live and reproduce in ABSENCE of competition (or other interactions)
-IDEALIZED, PERFECT habitat
Realized: sum of resource conditions and environmental parameters in which a species DOES live and reproduce in present of competition (or other interactions)
-ACTUAL SET OF CONDITIONS, not perfect habitat like fundamental
An Ecological Niche is potentially a ___________ of infinite dimensions
Hypervolume
What are the possible outcomes of Interspecific Competition?
- Displacement of Competitively Inferior Species (extinction?)
e.g., broke trout and bull trout - Coexistence…but occupy different parts of their fundamental niches
e.g., character displacement in the Galapagos finches
T/F: Competition CAN influence niche
TRUE
e.g., remove barnacle species from mid-intertidal zone, and the niche of the barnacle species in the high tide will expand into this new zone
-leads to difference I’m realized and fundamental niche
The Competitive Exclusion Principle states that ____________
Two species with identical environmental requirements (niches) CANNOT coexist indefinitely
-co-existing species occupy DIFFERENT niches
What evidence supports the Competitive Exclusion Principle?
Organisms perform bettie when competitors are REMOVED
Improved performance is due to AVAILABILITY of resources that would otherwise go to competitors
What is Character Displacement?
greater phenotypic differences in SYMPATRY than in areas of ALLOPATRY
What is Sympatry and Allopatry when referring to character displacement?
Sympatry = “same” place, interactions
Allopatry = “alone”
T/F: Natural selection favors individuals in the SYMPATRIC population that experience less interspecific competition
TRUE
Regarding exponential growth, what is the value for e (natural log)?
2.72
Regarding exponential growth, what is the formula for how long would it take a population to DOUBLE in size?
0.69 / r
Regarding exponential growth, how do you calculate r (intrinsic rate of increase)?
Crude Birth Rate - Crude Death Rate / 1000
Regarding fecundity schedules, how do you calculate R0?
Sum lxmx
An elephant pregnancy lasts approximately 22 months, and typically, only one calf is born per pregnancy. The calf weighs more than 200 pounds at birth. Elephants can live for 70 years. Based on this information, which survivorship curve is most likely for elephants?
Type I
