Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
Food people eat and how their bodies use it
A
nutrition
2
Q
Scientific knowledge of food requirements for maintenance, growth, activity, reproduction, lactation
A
nutrition science
3
Q
Health profession that applies nutrition science to promote health and treat disease
A
dietetics
4
Q
identify and minimize risk factors
A
preventive approach
5
Q
attempts change when symptoms of illness or disease appear
A
traditional approach
6
Q
Six essential nutrients?
A
carbs, protein, fat, vitamins, minerals, water
7
Q
Basic functions of food?
A
provide energy, build tissue, regulate metabolic processes
8
Q
Which nutrient is the primary source of fuel for heat and energy?
A
carbs
9
Q
Carbs maintain body’s backup store of quick energy as ________________?
A
glycogen
10
Q
Carbs should provide what range of total kilocalories?
A
45-65%
11
Q
Fats come from…
A
animal and plant sources
12
Q
Which nutrient is the secondary storage form of heat and energy?
A
fats
13
Q
Fats should provide what range of total kilocalories?
A
20-35%
14
Q
Which nutrient’s primary function is tissue building?
A
proteins
15
Q
Proteins should provide what range of total kilocalories?
A
10-35%
16
Q
What is the source of energy when carbs and fats is insufficient?
A
proteins
17
Q
What is necessary for building and repairing tissues?
A
proteins
18
Q
Which vitamin is essential for tissue building?
A
vitamin C
19
Q
Which two elements are required for building and maintaining bone?
A
calcium and phosphorous
20
Q
Which element is an essential part of hemoglobin in the blood?
A
iron
21
Q
What builds central fat substance of cell walls?
A
fatty acids
22
Q
What functions as coenzyme factors in regulation and control?
A
vitamins and minerals
23
Q
What is a vitamin’s function?
A
Components of cell enzymes in governing a chemical reaction during cell metabolism
24
Q
What is the essential base of all metabolic processes?
A
water
25
What regulates passage of food material through the GI tract?
fiber
26
What are DRI's?
dietary reference intake- the nutrition minimum standards that are established by each country
27
What are RDA's?
recommended dietary allowance-daily intake of nutrients that meet needs of almost all healthy individuals- found in DRI's- includes recommendations for each gender and age group
28
DRI's encompass what 4 interconnected categories of nutrient recommendations?
recommended dietary allowance (RDA), estimated average requirement (EAR), adequate intake (AI), and tolerable upper intake level (UL)
29
What is the estimated average requirement (EAR)?
Intake level that meets needs of half the individuals in a specific group
30
What is adequate intake used?
used when not enough evidence to establish the RDA
31
What is the tolerable upper intake level?
sets maximal intake unlikely to pose adverse health risks
32
Who sets the nutrition standards in other countries?
food and agriculture organization, and world health organization
33
Carbs provide practical energy sources because...
because of their availability, relatively low cost, and storage capability
34
Carbohydrate structures vary from _______ to ________, providing both quick and extended energy for the body
simple; complex
35
_________, an indigestible carbohydrate, serves separately as a regulatory agent within the gastrointestinal tract
Dietary fiber
36
Which monosaccharide is the product of lactose digestion?
galactose
37
Which monosaccharide is the basic single sugar in human metabolism?
glucose
38
Which monosaccharide is primarily found in fruits and honey?
fructose
39
Which disaccharide is simple table sugar?
sucrose
40
Which disaccharide is the sugar found in milk?
lactose
41
Which disaccharide is the product of intermediate breakdown of starch by the body?
maltose
42
What are polysaccharides?
complex carbs- composed of many single sugar untis
43
What is the most significant polysaccharide?
starch
44
What is the crucial polysaccharide formed within body tissues?
glycogen
45
Which polysaccharide has important dietary assets?
dietary fiber
46
What is considered dietary fiber?
whole grains, legumes, vegetables, fruits with as much skin remaining as possible
47
Recommended daily intake of dietary fiber for men age 50 and younger? Women?
men=38 g/day, women=25 g/day, increases should be gradual
48
What is the chief component of cell walls in plants?
cellulose
49
What is the only noncarbohydrate dietary fiber?
lignin
50
large compound that forms woody part of some plants
lignin
51
How do noncelluose polysaccharides slow stomach emptying?
absorb water and swell to larger size
52
What do noncellulose polysaccharides bind to?
bind with bile acids
53
What provides bulk for normal muscle action?
noncelluose polysaccharides
54
What are some nutritive sweeteners?
sugar alcohols (sorbitol, mannitol, xylitol)
55
What are some nonnutritive sweeteners?
artificial sweeteners in food
56
Carbs' primary energy function provides basic fuel supply for what?
physicial activity and work of body cells
57
How many grams of glycogen does the liver store for reserve fuel supply?
100 g of glycogen
58
How many grams of glycogen does the muscle store for reserve fuel supply?
300-400 g of glycogen
59
Reserve fuel supply of glycogen maintains blood glucose level, true or false?
true
60
Which special tissue maintains overall energy balance?
Liver and its glycogen reserve
61
Which nutrient protects protein and fat supply?
carbs
62
The CNS depends on constant supply of which nutrient?
carbs
63
What is the most important carb in our diet?
starches, whole grain starches like rice, wheat, corn and potatoes
64
Adding sugars to food provides what for the body?
empty calories
65
Where in the body do carbs start being digested?
In the mouth. Mastication breaking down food, as well as the chemical process in which enzymes begin breaking down food occur here.
66
What occurs in the stomach regarding the digestion of carbs?
Peristalsis (mechanical break down), gastric secretions continue chemical break down of nutrients, but secretions do not break down carbs in the stomach, but stop the actions of salivary amylase
67
What occurs in the small intestine for the digestion of carbs?
peristalsis (mechanical break down) and enzymes from pancreas and intestines continue chemical break down
68
What pancreatic secretions work on the digestion of carbs?
Enter duodenum through the common bile duct and contain pancreatic amylase to continue break down of starch
69
Intestinal secretions render what three disaccharides into monosaccharides?
sucrose, lactase and maltose
70
What percentage should you limit sugar in your diet?
no more than 25% of calories consumed, the dietary guidelines for Americans does not provide a specific caloric number or percentage
71
Dietary fat in the body is used for what?
supplies essential body tissue needs both as an energy fuel and structural material, fat does have essential nutrients!
72
Fat substitutes are not absorbed and therefore do not provide energy or essential nutrients but may provide what?
flavor and satisfaction
73
What are the functions of adipose tissue?
protects organs and helps regulate temperature
74
What does fat do for cell membrane structure?
forms part of the cell membrane and helps transport nutrients across cell membranes
75
Where does digestion of fats occur?
mouth, stomach, small intestine
76
In the small intestine, what helps digest fats?
bile from the gall bladder, enzymes from the pancreas, enzymes from the small intestine and absorption occurs
77
Why is fat important?
it is concentrated fuel for energy
78
What are the different classes of fats?
lipids, glycerides (triglycerides), fatty acids, lipoproteins
79
What are saturated fatty acids saturated with?
filled with hydrogen
80
How are unsaturated fatty acids different from saturated?
Unsaturated is not completely filled with hydrogen, and it is less heavy and dense
81
What are monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats?
Monounsaturated= one unfilled spot, polyunsaturated= 2 or more unfilled spots
82
Do trans fatty acids naturally occur?
Yes, these have negative health consequences!
83
What does a trans fatty acid look like?
hydrogen atoms around carbon double bond are on opposite sides
84
What do omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids look like?
Determined by position of first carbon involved in double bond
85
What is the definition of essential fatty acids?
the body can create it and absence of it will create a specific deficiency
86
What are two essential fatty acids?
linoleic and and alpha linoleic
87
What is the difference between invisible and visible fats?
Invisible fats are in the ingredients of prepared food. It's easy to see the amount of butter that you would put on a slice of bread but the fat in oil that you would put in cake is invisible. Invisible fat can be found in meats, oils, and dairy products.
88
Monounsaturated fats reduce______________when substituted for saturated fat.
LDL cholesterol
89
Excess calories are stored as ______
fat
90
Animal food sources contribute to excess ________________ in the diet.
cholesterol and saturated fat
91
Recommend that the fat content should not exceed 20% to 35% of total kilocalories. Less than 10% of kilocalories should be from _______________.
saturated fat
92
Dietary cholesterol should be limited to _________.
300 mg/day
93
What is the dietary reference intake of linoleic for men and women?
17 g/day for men, 12 g/day for women.
94
What is the dietary reference intake of linolenic for men and women?
1.6 g/day for men, 1.1 g/day for women.
95
Protein in food provides the amino acids necessary for building and maintaining __________.
body tissues
96
Each protein is composed of _________ of amino acids
hundreds
97
When protein foods are eaten, proteins are broken down into amino acids. Amino acids are _______________ in the body to form a variety of proteins.
reassembled
98
Proteins are relatively large, complex molecules that may be subject to _______ or __________.
mutations or malformations
99
2 amino acids make a ____________
dipeptide
100
What is the basic structure of an amino acid?
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
101
What is the primary source of nitrogen in the diet?
amino acids
102
What is the difference between dispensable and indispensable amino acids?
Indispensable amino acids= body cannot manufacture in sufficient quantity. Dispensable amino acids=body can synthesize from indispensable.
103
What are conditionally indispensable amino acids?
Normally synthesized but some health conditions may require dietary intake
104
What is catabolism and anabolism for protein balance?
catabolism:break down, anabolism: resynthesis
105
For nitrogen balance (intake=excretion), what is positive and negative nitrogen balance?
Positive nitrogen balance: body stores more than it excretes. Negative: Body takes in less than it excretes.
106
What are the functions of proteins?
Primary tissue building, water and pH balance, metabolism and transportation, body defense system, and energy system.
107
When proteins build tissue, it comprises the bulk of what?
Muscles, internal organs, brain, nerves, and blood plasma.
108
Protein's tissue building make the fundamental structural material of every cell. Do proteins re-pair tissue?
Protein repairs worn-out, wasted, or damaged tissue.
109
In water and pH balance, plasma proteins attract _________, resulting in maintenance and normal circulation.
water
110
Proteins have unique stucture that acts as ________________.
buffering agents
111
What are some digestive enzymes?
amylases, lipases and proteases
112
What are some transport protein agents?
lipoproteins and hemoglobin
113
In the immune system, proteins are used to build what?
white blood cells and antibodies
114
Proteins are less efficient for energy than carbs and fat, true or false?
Yes, they are the third line for energy use.
115
What are some examples of complete proteins?
meat, fish, poultry, seafood, soy
116
What are some examples of incomplete proteins?
plant-origin foods, grains, legumes, nuts, seeds, fruits, vegetables
117
What should vegetarians do to get their daily protein requirement?
They must combine foods to cover all amino acid needs.
118
What are the health benefits for a vegetarian diet?
Less saturated fat and cholesterol, more fruits, vegetables, whole grains, other healthful foods, lower BMI and risk of obesity, lower rate of cardiovascular disease, lower risk of renal disease, and lower risk of type 2 diabetes.
119
Where does the digestion of proteins begin? What enzymes are involved?
Stomach: enzymatic breakdown of protein by proenzymes (zymogens), Hydrochloric acid, pepsin and rennin.
120
Which pancreatic and intestinal secretions are present in the small intestine?
Pancreatic secretions: trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase. Intestinal secretions: aminopeptidase, and dipeptidase.
121
What illnesses raise the body's need for protein?
Fever, catabolic tissue break down, traumatic injury, recovery from surgery, burns, and pressure sores.
122
What is kwashiorkor?
Kwashiorkor, protein-energy malnutrition characterized by edema, irritability, anorexia, ulcerating dermatoses, and an enlarged liver with fatty infiltrates. Sufficient calorie intake, but with insufficient protein consumption, distinguishes it from marasmus. Kwashiorkor cases occur in areas of famine or poor food supply. Cases in the developed world are rare.
123
What is marasmus?
Marasmus is a form of severe malnutrition characterized by energy deficiency. A child with marasmus looks emaciated. Body weight is reduced to less than 60% of the normal (expected) body weight for the age. Marasmus occurrence increases prior to age 1, whereas kwashiorkor occurrence increases after 18 months. It can be distinguished from kwashiorkor in that kwashiorkor is protein deficiency with adequate energy intake whereas marasmus is inadequate energy intake in all forms, including protein. Protein wasting in kwashiorkor may lead to edema.
124
What does excess protein intake usually go along with for other excess intake? What does this put a burdern on?
Usually also means excess fat intake. Protein displaces other healthy foods in diet. It is an extra burden on the kidneys.
125
What does the recommended dietary allowance for protein depend on?
Relate to age, sex, weight, highest at birth and slowly declines into adulthood. Men and women: 0.8 g/kg of desirable weight.
126
What are the benefits and risks for high consumption of animal protein in the U.S.?
High consumption of animal protein in the U.S- there is no benefits, some risks, cancer, coronary heart disease, kidney stones and chronic renal failure.
127
What is recommended for protein intake?
Choose a variety of protein foods, increase amount and variety of seafood, and choose proteins with less solid fats and oils.
128
Foods must undergo mechanical and chemical digestion in order to be delivered where?
to cells
129
The nerves in the esophagus to the anus do what to food?
control muscle tone in wall, regulate rate and intensity of contractions, and coordinate various movements.
130
Hydrochloric acid and buffer ions do what for chemical digestion?
produce the correct pH necessary for enzyme activity
131
What do enzymes and mucus do for chemical digestion?
Enzymes= specific digestive proteins for breaking down nutrients. Mucus= lubricates and protects the GI tract tissues and helps mix the food mass.
132
What do water and electrolytes do for chemical digestion?
carry and circulate the products of digestion through the tract and into the tissues
133
What does bile do for chemical digestion?
divides fat into smaller pieces to assist fat enzymes
134
During mechanical digestion what do salivary glands secrete?
Salivary glands secrete material containing salivary amylase, ptyalin and mucus.
135
Ebner’s glands at the back of the tongue secrete what?
lingual lipase
136
By the time food mass reaches the lower portion of the stomach (antrum), it is a semiliquid acid/food mix called what?
chyme, and the pyloric valve slowly releases chyme into the first section of the small intestine
137
What does the acid secretion of hydrochloric acid do during chemical digestion in the stomach?
parietal cells in the stomach lining secrete acid to promote gastric enzyme activity
138
What does the acid secretion of mucus do during chemical digestion in the stomach?
secretions protect the stomach lining from the erosive effect of the acid and also bind and mix the food mass and help move it along
139
What does pepsinogen become during chemical digestion in the stomach?
pepsinogen is secreted by stomach cells and is activated by acid to become pepsin, a protein-splitting enzyme
140
In the small intestine, pancreatic enzymes do what to starch?
Pancreatic amylase converts starch to maltose and sucrose
141
In the small intestine, pancreatic enzymes do what to proteins?
trypsin and chymotrypsin split large protein molecules into small peptide fragments and eventually into single amino acids; carboxypeptidase removes end amino acids from peptide chains
142
In the small intestine, pancreatic enzymes do what to fat?
Pancreatic lipase converts fat to glycerides and fatty acids.
143
In the small intestine, intestinal enzymes do what to carbs?
Disaccharides convert disaccharies into monosaccharies.
144
In the small intestine, intestinal enzymes do what to protein?
Enterokinase activates trypsinogen from the pancreas to become trypsin; amino peptidase removes end amino acids from polypeptides; dipeptidase splits dipeptides into amino acids.
145
In the small intestine, intestinal enzymes do what to fat?
Intestinal lipase splits fat into glycerides and fatty acids.
146
What hormones are involved in chemical digestion in the small intestine?
secretin for alkaline environment, cholecystokinin triggers release of bile
147
What does bile do in chemical digestion of the small intestine?
emulsifying agent, aids fat digestion and absorption
148
After passing through the small intestine, what happens to carbs, fats and protein?
Carbohydrates: reduced to simple sugars (glucose, fructose, galactose). Fats: changed into fatty acids and glycerides. Proteins: changed into single amino acids. Vitamins and minerals: liberated from food.
149
Amount of nutrients consumed depends on bioavailability, which means...
Amount of nutrient present, competition between nutrients for absorption sites, and form in which nutrient is present.
150
What are the three absorbing structures in the small intestine?
Mucosal folds, (surface of small intestine piles into many folds), Villi, (small, fingerlike projections), Microvilli, (cover each villus). Make inner surface 600 times greater than outer surface of intestinal wall.
151
What does facilitated diffusion use?
uses a protein channel for carrier-assisted movement of larger particles
152
What is the main absorptive task for the large intestine?
Water: main absorptive task of large intestine is to absorb water; small amount remains for feces.
153
What does dietary fiber do for absorption in the large intestine?
contributes bulk to help form feces
154
What do macronutrients and micronutrients do for absorption in the large intestine?
absorbed to lymph or blood
155
In veins and arteries, what do they transport in the blood during digestion?
Carry water-soluble nutrients, oxygen, other vital substances, transport wastes for removal, and portal circulation first carries nutrients to liver for cell enzyme work.
156
What does the lymphatic system do for transportation during digestion?
Carries non–water-soluble fatty materials, lymph vessels in villi absorb materials, route to larger lymph vessels and eventually to blood stream through thoracic duct.
157
During metabolism, individual macronutrients in food have been broken down and absorbed where?
Into the bloodstream and or lymphatic system and then they are converted into energy or stored.
158
Where does metabolism take place in cells?
Mitochondria of cells, catabolism and anabolism occur
159
Metabolic processes ensure that the body has energy in the form of what?
ATP
160
Metabolism of glucose from carbohydrates yields ___________ energy than metabolism of fat, but glucose is the body’s primary source of energy!
less
161
Glucose is converted to glycogen via ______________, stored in liver or muscles.
glycogenesis
162
When glycogen reserves are full, excess is stored as fat via __________.
lipogenesis
163
Excess protein/amino acids is converted to glucose via ______________________.
gluconeogenesis
164
What is PKU?
A genetic defect where an enzyme responsible for metabolizing essential amino acid phenylalanine is missing.
165
Untreated PKU could cause what?
Untreated, causes permanent mental retardation and CNS damage, but with proper treatment, affected children may have normal and healthy lives.
166
What is galactosemia?
Enzyme responsible for metabolizing galactose to glucose is missing. All sources of lactose must be eliminated from diet. Untreated, can cause brain and liver damage. Screening and treatment can enable normal life.
167
What are glycogen storage diseases?
Group of rare genetic defects, it's the absence of enzymes required for synthesis or breakdown of glycogen. The form of disease depends on enzyme missing.
168
What is lactose intolerance?
Not a genetic inborn error of metabolism. It is a deficiency of any of the disaccharidases in small intestine. There is insufficient lactase to break down milk. Abdominal cramping and diarrhea occurs. Produces containing lactose must be avoided.
169
Food energy is changed into what? What does the body use most of its energy supply for?
Food energy is changed into body energy to do work. The body uses most of its energy supply for basal metabolic needs.
170
What is involuntary body work that needs the greatest share of energy output?
Circulation, respiration, digestion and absorption.
171
When it comes to involuntary body work, where is chemical energy used? Electrical energy? Mehanical energy? Thermal energy?
Chemical energy: many metabolic processes, Electrical energy: brain and nerve activities, Mechanical energy: muscle contraction, Thermal energy: to maintain body temperature.
172
What is the amount of heat needed to raise 1 kg of water?
Amount of heat needed to raise 1 kg of water is 1° C
173
How do you convert kcal to kJ?
Convert kcal to kJ: multiply kcal by 4.184
174
What is the food energy in kcal for carbs, fat, protein and alcohol?
Carbohydrate: 4 kcal/g, Fat: 9 kcal/g, Protein: 4 kcal/g, Alcohol: 7 kcal/g.
175
What is caloric density? Which nutrient has the highest?
high concentration of energy in a small amount of food- fats have the highest. Food guides recommend foods that are nutrient dense.
176
Two energy systems support human life. The external energy cycle and the internal energy cycle. What are these?
External energy cycle: plants transform radiation from the sun into stored chemical energy (carbohydrates, proteins, and fats). Internal energy cycle: animals, including human beings, use the stored chemical energy for body needs.
177
How can energy intake be computed?
Energy intake can be computed by tracking intake and calculating its energy value
178
How long is glycogen stored in the liver and muscles?
12- to 48-hour store in liver and muscles
179
What is the most concentrated form of energy?
Adipose tissue: varies by individual, most concentrated form of energy
180
When is muscle mass used for energy?
Muscle mass: used only during longer periods of fasting or starvation
181
What is metabolism?
Chemical changes that occur during: Normal body functions, regulation of body temperature and tissue growth and repair.
182
Total energy demands are determined by what?
Resting energy expenditure, physical activity, and thermic effect of food.
183
What is resting energy expenditure?
Sum of all working internal activities of the body, expressed in kilocalories per day, also called resting metabolic rate, basal energy expendiure.
184
What do you use to measure basal metabolic rate or resting metabolic rate? What does it measure?
Sometimes done in clinical practice
Uses indirect calorimetry
Measures exchange of carbon dioxide
185
How do you measure BMR?
Multiply 0.9 or 1 kcal/kg body weight by 24 (hours in a day)
186
What equation is used to measure RMR?
Mifflin-St. Jeor equation found to give most reliable RMR
187
What else can you use to measure basal metabolic rate?
Thyroid function tests- thyroid hormone regulates metabolism
188
Is there greater or less metabolic activity in lean tissues?
Greater!
189
What hormone stimulates cell metabolism and raises BMR?
growth hormone
190
What increases and decreases BMR?
Fever increases BMR, hypothyroidism decreases BMR.
191
How can you energy expenditure?
Energy expenditure can be estimated by categorizing activity and multiplying RMR by category factor.
192
What is the total energy requirement made up of?
RMR + physical activity + TEF
193
When is extra energy needed?
Extra energy needed to build new tissues, greatest growth is infancy through adolescence, pregnancy and lactation also require increased energy intake.
194
What happens to energy needs in adulthood?
Energy needs plateau as full growth achieved.
| BMR then declines 1% to 2% per decade, reducing energy needs. Rapid decline occurs at age 40 (men) and 50 (women).
195
What are vitamins?
Vitamins are noncaloric essential nutrients necessary for many metabolic tasks. It must be a vital, organic substance that is only necessary in extremely small amounts. It cannot be manufactured by the body in sufficient quantities to sustain life, so it must be supplied by diet.
196
How were vitamins discovered?
Discovered while searching for cures for classic diseases- Dr. James Lind and scurvy. Sailors dying on long voyages without fresh food. Lemons and limes provided, no one became ill. British soldiers got the nickname, “limeys”. Most vitamins were discovered in the first half of the 1900's.
197
What study proved that accessory factors are present in natural foods that are essential to life?
Dr. Frederich Hopkins of Cambridge University
Two groups of rats. Group 1: Fed synthetic mix of protein, carbohydrate, fat, mineral salts, and water: All rats died. Group 2: Fed same ration but with purified milk: All rats grew normally.
198
What are the functions of vitamins?
Metabolic tasks, components of coenzymes, antioxidants, components of hormones that affect gene expression, component of light-sensitive rhodopsin molecule (vitamin A)
199
What is an example of a vitamin being a conenzyme?
Coenzymes needed to perform certain functions, such as: glucose metabolism, protein metabolism, fatty acid metabolism
200
Which vitamin is involved with tissue protection and structure?
vitamin C
201
What are the characteristics of of fat soluble vitamin metabolism?
Vitamins incorporated with absorbed fat and transported by chylomicrons, best absorbed when eaten with fat and may be stored for long periods.
202
What are the characteristics of water soluble vitamin metabolism?
Easily absorbed and transported by the portal circulation. Not stored, so must be eaten on regular basis (exceptions: B12 and B6).
203
What are the functions of vitamin A? What are the requirements?
Vision, tissue strength and immunity, growth. Requirements: Food forms and units of measure
and body storage.
204
What are the food forms of Vitamin A?
Food forms and units of measure. Preformed vitamin A: animal sources. Provitamin A: yellow, orange, or deep green fruits or vegetables.
205
What diseases are deficient in vitamin A?
Xerosis and xerophthalmia
206
What are toxicity symptoms of vitamin A?
Hypervitaminosis A
207
What are the food sources for vitamin A?
Preformed vitamin A: Fish liver oils, liver, egg yolk, butter, cream, milk fat. Beta-carotene: dark green leafy vegetables, dark orange vegetables and fruits.
208
Vitamin A stability is done how?
Quick cooking with little water to preserve.
209
What are the functions of Vitamin D?
Absorption of calcium and phosphorus and bone mineralization
210
Vitamin D deficiency diseases?
rickets and osteoporosis
211
Who is susceptible to vitamin D toxicity syndromes?
infants and children
212
What are some good ways to get vitamin D in your diet?
Few good natural sources other than fatty fish.
| Large portion of intake must come from fortified foods (e.g., milk).
213
What are the functions of vitamin E?
Antioxidant to protect cell membranes and works with glutathione peroxidase as antioxidant
214
What are the requirements for vitamin E?
RDA for 14 and older is 15 mg/day
215
What are some vitamin E deficiency diseases?
Hemolytic anemia in young adults, dietary deficiency is rare.
216
What are some vitamin E toxicity syndromes?
excessive supplements can interfere with vitamin K activity
217
What are some vitamin E food sources?
The best is vegetable oils. Nuts, fortified cereal, avocado.
218
Stability of vitamin E?
unstable to heat and alkalis
219
What are the functions of vitamin K?
Blood clotting: essential component of four clotting factors. Bone development: five proteins in bone and cartilage require vitamin K–dependent modifications.
220
What are the requirements of vitamin K?
Intestinal bacteria synthesize a constant supply. Insufficient evidence to establish RDA. AI is 120 mcg/day for men and 90 mcg/day for women.
221
What are some vitamin K deficiency diseases?
Deficiency disease: blood loss, uncommon.
Patients with a malabsorption syndrome, patients treated with antibiotic that kills intestinal bacteria.
Routinely given to infants at birth because deficient at gestation. There are no toxicity symptoms observed.
222
What are some food sources of vitamin K?
Green, leafy vegetables. Small amounts of phylloquinone from dairy products, meats, fortified cereals, fruits, vegetables.
223
What is the stability of vitamin K?
Fairly stable, sensitive to light and irradiation
| and stored in dark bottles.
224
What are the functions of vitamin C?
Connective tissue: helps build strong tissues through collagen synthesis. General body metabolism: used by adrenals, brain, kidney, liver, pancreas, thymus, spleen. Antioxidant: similar to vitamin E.
225
What are the requriements for vitamin C?
75 mg/day for women, 90 mg/day for men; increases for pregnant, lactating women, smokers
226
What happens in vitamin C deficiency?
Tissue bleeding, bone fracture, and scurvy.
227
What are some vitamin C toxicity symptoms?
kidney stones, GI disturbances, osmotic diarrhea
228
What are some food sources of vitamin C and the stabilty of it?
Citrus fruits, and it is quickly oxidized upon exposure to to air and heat.
229
What is the function of thiamin (vitamin B1)?
GI system, nervous system, CV system.
230
What are the requirements and deficiency problems of thiamin (B1)?
Requirements: 1.2 mg/day for men, 1.1 for women.
| Deficiency disease: Poor appetite, indigestion, constipation, Beriberi. There is no evidence of toxicity.
231
What are the food sources and stability of thiamin (B1)?
Food sources: especially enriched grains and Stability: fairly stable
232
What are the functions and requirements of riboflavin (vitamin B2)?
Functions: Macronutrient metabolism to product ATP. Requirements: Related to total energy requirements. RDA for adults: 1.3 and 1.1 mg/day for men and women, respectively.
233
What do you see in someone with a deficiency in riboflavin (B2)?
Areas of the body with rapid cell regeneration (lips, mouth, tongue). No toxicity symptoms are reported.
234
What are some food sources for riboflavin (B2)? What about the stability?
Most important is milk, enriched grains and animal protein work as well. The stability is destroyed by light.
235
What are the functions of niacin (B3)? What are the requirements?
Energy metabolism and DNA repair. The requirements depend on many factors. 16 niacin equivalents/day for men, 14 for women.
236
What happens when you're deficient in niacin (B3)?
Weakness, poor appetite, systemic symptoms, pellagra.
237
What are the symptoms for niacin (B3) toxicity?
From supplements, flushing.
238
What are the food sources for niacin (B3)? Stability?
Meat, poultry, fish, legumes, enriched grain products. Stabilty is lost in cooking water unless water is consumed (soup).
239
What is the function of vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)? What are the requirements?
Functions: Protein metabolism, neurotransmitter.
Requirements: Vary with protein intake
1.3 mg/day for men and women up to age 50. Deficiency is unlikely.
240
What are the toxicity symptoms of vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)?
From supplements, uncoordinated movement and nerve damage.
241
What are the food sources and stability for vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)?
Widespread in foods. Stability is is stable to heat but sensitive to light and alkalis.
242
What are the functions of folate?
DNA synthesis, regulation of blood homocysteine levels
243
What are there requirements and deficiency diseases for folate?
Requirements: 400 mcg/day. Deficiency diseases:
| Megaloblastic anemia and neural tube defects. No toxicity symptoms.
244
What are the food sources and stability for folate?
Widely distributed in foods, both naturally occurring and fortified. Stability is easily destroyed by heat and leaches into cooking water.
245
What are the functions and requirements of cobalamin (B12)?
Functions: Regulation of blood homocysteine levels, heme synthesis, DNA synthesis and cell division. Requirements: Small amount usually met by diet/ No specific symptoms for deficiency, but pernicious anemia could occur.
246
What are food sources and the stability for cobalamin (vitamin B12)?
Food sources: bound to protein in foods. Stability: stable in ordinary cooking.
247
What are the functions of pantothenic acid? Stability?
Functions: Cellular metabolism, protein acetylation and protein acylation. Requirements: No specific RDA. Deficiency and toxicity is unlikely. It occurs widely in food. It is stable to acid and heat but sensitive to alkalis.
248
What are the functions of biotin?
coenzyme for carboxylases
249
What are the requirements for biotin?
Extremely small, 30 mcg/day, no known deficiency or toxicity symptoms known. It is found in many foods. It is stable but water soluble.
250
What are the functions of choline? What are the requirements?
Data insufficient to determine its essentiality.
Functions: structural integrity of cell membranes
and neurotransmission. Requirements: 550 mg/day for men, 425 mg/day for women.
251
What are the deficiency symptoms of choline? Toxicity symptoms?
Deficiency disease: liver and muscle damage.
| Toxicity symptoms: lowered blood pressure, fishy body odor.
252
What are the food sources for choline? Stability?
Food sources: occurs in a wide variety of foods.
| Stability: relatively stable nutrient and water-soluble.
253
What are the functions of phytochemicals?
Antioxidant function, hormonal actions, interactions with enzymes and DNA replication and antibacterial effects.
254
What is the recommended intake for phytochemicals?
No established DRIs, consume a colorful variety of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and nuts.
255
How many americans eat according to guidelines?
Only 3-4%
256
When should someone use vitamin supplements?
Restricted diets: those following fad diets, vegans
Smoking: reduces vitamin C pool
Alcohol: can reduce absorption of B-complex vitamins
Disease: requires nutrition assessment
257
What are megadoses of vitamins used for?
alleviate illness, prevent disease, and relieve symptoms
258
What are the building blocks of life?
Hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. 25 elements are also essential to human life.
259
What are the major minerals that are recommended intake of more than 100 mg/day?
Calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, magnesium, chloride and sulfur.
260
What are the trace minerals?
18 elements, recommended intake of less than 100 mg/day.
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What are the functions of minerals?
Building tissues, activating, regulating, transmitting, and controlling metabolic processes.
262
Do minerals require much digestion?
NO
263
How are minerals transported?
Enter through portal circulation, bound to proteins
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How does tissue uptake occur in mineral metabolism?
Controlled by hormones, excess excreted urine.
265
Occurrence of mineral metabolism in the body?
basic forms are free ions and covalently bound
266
Of the total amount of minerals a person consumes, only a relatively limited amount is available to the body. True or false?
True!
267
What are the functions of calcium?
Bone and tooth formation, blood clotting, muscle and nerve action, metabolic actions: absorption of B12, activation of pancreatic lipase, secretion of insulin, and cell membrane permeability.
268
What are the requirements for calcium? Major food sources?
1000 mg/day for men and women 19 to 50, toxicity leads to hypercalcemia. Milk is a major food source. Green veggies, fish with bone and and fortified food are also good.
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What are the functions of phosphorous?
Bone and tooth formation, energy metabolism: oxidation of carbohydrate, fat, and protein; protein construction; cell function; genetic inheritance. Acid–base balance.
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What are the requirements for phosphorous? What are good food sources for phosphorous?
Requirements: 700 mg/day. Deficiency states: hypophosphatemia. No toxicity symptoms shown. Milk, milk products, fish and eggs are good sources.
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What are the functions of sodium?
Water balance, muscle action and nutrient absorption.
272
What are the requirements for sodium? Deficiency and toxicity symptoms?
Requirements: AI: 1.5 g/day, UL: 2.3 g/day.. Deficiency states: hyponatremia. Toxicity symptoms: salt sensitivity and hypertension, hypernatremia.
273
What are the food sources for sodium?
Table salt, cured meat, canned soup, and processed food.
274
What are the functions of potassium?
Water balance, metabolic reactions, energy production, conversion of blood glucose to glycogen, synthesis of muscle protein, muscle action, insulin release. Blood pressure: role in hypertension.
275
What are the requirements for potassium? What food sources are rich in potassium?
Requirements: AI: 4.7 g/day, Deficiency states: hypokalemia, Toxicity symptoms: hyperkalemia
Food sources: Fruits, vegetables, whole grains, fresh meats.
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What are the functions of chloride?
Digestion: component of hydrochloric acid, respiration: chloride shift
277
What are the requirements of chloride?
Requirements: AI: 2.3 g/day, Food sources: table salt
278
Deficiency and toxicity states for chloride?
Deficiency states: through vomiting, Toxicity symptoms: from severe dehydration
279
What are the functions of magnesium?
General metabolism: necessary catalyst for ~300+ reactions in cells . Protein synthesis: activates amino acids, role in synthesis and maintenance of DNA, muscle action. Basal metabolic rate: influences secretion of thyroxine.
280
What are the requirements of magnesium?
Requirements: ~300 to 400 mg/day. Deficiency states: hypomagnesemia, rare with balanced diet. Toxicity symptoms: excessive supplements may produce GI symptoms.
281
What are the food sources for magnesium?
Nuts, soybeans, cocoa, seafood, peas, green vegetables
282
What is the function of sulfur?
Functions: Hair, skin, nails. General metabolic functions: High-energy bond and transfer energy
283
What is the vitamin structure of sulfur?
component of thiamin and biotin, collagen structure
284
What are the requirements and food sources?
Requirements: not stated, obtained through amino acids methionine and cysteine. No deficiency states reported and toxicity is unlikely. Food sources: animal proteins
Meat, nuts, soy, fish, cheese, eggs.
285
What are the trace minerals?
Iron, Iodine, Zinc, Selenium, Fluoride, Copper, Manganese, Chromium, Molybdenum, other essential trace minerals.
286
What are the functions of iron?
Hemoglobin synthesis, general metabolism: Proper glucose metabolism, antibody production, drug detoxification in the liver, collagen and purine synthesis, conversion of carotene to vitamin A.
287
What are the requirements of iron?
Requirements: 8 to 11 mg/day for males, 8 to 18 mg/day for females. Deficiency states: anemia. Toxicity symptoms: Overdose from supplements and Hemochromatosis.
288
What are the food sources of iron?
heme and non heme
289
What is the function of iodine? What are the requirements?
Participation in thyroid gland’s synthesis of thyroxine. Requirements: 150 mcg/day.
290
What happens when you're deficient in iodine?
Deficiency states: Goiter, Cretinism, Hypothyroidism
| Hyperthyroidism.
291
What are the food sources for iodine?
Iodized table salt, seafood; depends on soil content.
292
What are the functions of zinc? Requirements?
Functions: Enzyme constituent, Immune system, Other functions. Requirements: 11 mg/day for males, 8 mg/day for females.
293
Deficiency states for zinc? Food sources?
Deficiency states: Poor wound healing, impaired taste and smell. Food sources: Meat, seafood, legumes, and whole grains.
294
What are the functions of selenium? What are the requirements?
Aids in protection from free radicals. RDA: 55 mcg/day.
295
What are the food sources for selenium?
Seafood, kidney, liver; depends on soil content
296
Fluoride function?
prevents dental caries, exceeding UL may cause fluorosis
297
Copper is a twin of what other mineral?
iron
298
Manganese can have was kind of toxicity?
inhalation toxicity
299
What was chromium previously thought as?
to reduce insulin resistance
300
Molybdenum inadequate dietary intake is improbable. True or false?
true
301
What are some common deficiencies for minerals?
Iron deficiency anemia and zinc
302
When is mineral supplementation needed?
Pregnancy and lactation: for both fetus and mother, Adolescence: rapid bone growth, Adulthood: postmenopausal women
303
What are the the necessary nutrients for water in life?
1,000 ml of water necessary for every 1000 kcal in the diet. Age infants need 700 to 800 ml of water per day.
304
What total body weight loss is considered dehydration? When should you be concerned for over intoxicity?
>2% total body weight loss, Special concern in the elderly, Water intoxication
Infants, Psychiatric patients, Patients on psychotropic drugs, Endurance athletes
305
How much water is present in humans? How much more in men than women?
Amount and distribution: 45% to 75% of body weight in adults. 10% more body water in men than women.
306
What are the 2 major compartments for water balance in our bodies?
Extracellular fluid: blood plasma, interstitial fluid, lymphatic circulation, transcellular fluid
Intracellular fluid: twice that of water outside cells.
307
How much water does the average adult metabolize in one day?
Overall water balance: average adult metabolizes 2.5 to 3 L/day
308
What is our water intake?
Preformed water in liquids that are consumed
Preformed water in foods that are eaten
Product of cell oxidation
309
What are electrolytes?
Small, inorganic substances that can break apart in solution and carry an electrical charge- Balance between cation and anion concentration maintains chemical neutrality necessary for life.
310
What makes up plasma proteins? What do they do?
Mainly albumin and globulin, Organic compounds of large molecular size, Retained in blood vessels, Control water movement, Colloids guard blood volume (colloidal osmotic pressure).
311
Small organic compound concentration is typically too low to influence shifts of water. What is the exception?
Glucose can increase water loss from body: polyuria
312
What moves freely across thin, porous capillary membranes?
Water molecules, electrolytes, and nutrients move freely across them
313
Why are cell membranes thicker than capillary membranes?
Constructed to protect and nourish cell contents. Uses channels to limit passage to specific molecules.
314
What is the purpose of the capillary fluid shift mechanism?
Purpose: take in water, oxygen, and nutrients, remove water and waste
Process: blood pressure forces water and nutrients into tissue, colloid osmotic pressure draws water and metabolites back into capillary circulation
315
What happens during water circulation?
Water from blood plasma is continually secreted into the gastrointestinal tract. In the latter portion of the intestine, most water and electrolytes are reabsorbed into the blood. Is maintained in isotonicity. Isotonicity: equal osmotic pressure.
Clinical applications: loss of isotonicity through vomiting or prolong diarrhea
316
What helps maintain water balance and proper solution of blood?
Kidney “laundering” of the blood helps maintain water balance and proper solution of blood
317
Which hormones regulate water balance?
Antidiuretic hormone mechanism, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
318
How is acid/base maintained in body water solutions and secretions?
Optimal degree of acidity or alkalinity must be maintained in body water solutions and secretions. Achieved by chemical and physiologic buffer systems. We have many buffer systems!
319
Do acids or bases have more hydrogen ions?
Acid: compound has more hydrogen ions, can release ions when in solution
Base: compound with fewer hydrogen ions, can accept ions when in solution
320
What is the chemical buffer system for acid/base?
Mixture of acid and base that protects a solution from wide variations in pH. Main buffer system: carbonic acid/base bicarbonate.
321
What are some physiologic buffer systems?
Respiratory control: carbon dioxide leaves the body. Urinary control: kidney monitors hydrogen ions.
