Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
psychologists
A
- advanced graduate training in the assessment and diagnosis of psychopathology and how to practice psychotherapy
- Ph. D. or Psy.D. in clinical psychology, counseling, or school psychology
2
Q
psychiatrists
A
- medical degree with postgraduate training (residency) in diagnosis and pharmacotherapy
- can prescribe psychotropic medications
3
Q
psychiatric nurses
A
- bachelor’s or master’s level training
- nurse practitioners receive specialized training to prescribe psychotropic medications
4
Q
social workers or licensed mental health counselors
A
- Master of Social Work (M.S.W.) or Counseling (L.P.C., L.C.S.W.)
- typically requires 2 years of graduate study
- trained in psychotherapy or counseling
5
Q
clinical psychology
A
the field concerned with the nature, development, and treatment of psychological disorders
6
Q
stigma
A
destructive beliefs and attitudes held by a society that are ascribed to groups considered different in some way
7
Q
four characteristics of stigma
A
1) distinguishing label is applied
2) label refers to undesirable attributes
3) people with the label are seen as different
4) people with the label are discriminated against
8
Q
criteria of psychological disorders (PDs)
A
- the disorder occurs within the individual
- involves clinically significant difficulties in thinking, feeling, or behaving
- usually involves personal distress of some sort
- involves dysfunction in psychological, developmental, and/or neurobiological processes that support mental functioning
- not a culturally specific reaction to an event
- not primarily a result of social deviance or conflict with society
9
Q
three key characteristics of PDs
A
1) personal distress
2) disability and dysfunction
3) violation of social norms
10
Q
disability
A
impairment in an important area (e.g., work, relationships)
11
Q
dysfunction
A
developmental, psychological, and/or biological systems are not working as they should; these systems are interrelated and dysfunction in one can influence dysfunction in another system
12
Q
social norms
A
widely held standards (beliefs and attitudes) used to make judgements about behaviors
13
Q
supernatural explanations of PDs
A
displeasure of the gods or possession by demons; treatment through exorcism
14
Q
Hippocrates
A
- believed mental disturbances have natural causes
- three categories of mental disorders: mania, melancholia, and phrenitis
- healthy brain functioning depended on balance of four humors –> blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm
- treatment by restoring natural balance
15
Q
dark ages
A
- Christian monasteries replaced physicians as healers
- returned to the belief of supernatural causes
- treatments: cared and prayed for by monks, touched with relics, drank potions in the waning phase of the moon
16
Q
Lunacy Trials
A
trials held to determine a person’s mental health
17
Q
asylums
A
15th century; establishments for the confinement and care of people with PDs
18
Q
Philippe Pinel
A
pioneered humane treatment in asylums
19
Q
Dorothea Dix
A
crusader for improved conditions for people with PDs; worked to establish 32 new public hospitals
20
Q
general paresis and syphilis
A
the link between syphilis and general paresis helped to illustrate how biological causes could contribute to mental symptoms
21
Q
general paresis
A
deterioration of mental and physical abilities and progressive paralysis
22
Q
Galton
A
originator of genetic research with twins; work led to notion that mental illness can be inherited; led to eugenics movement (promotion of enforced sterilization to eliminate undesirable characteristics)
23
Q
insulin-coma therapy
A
injected with overdose of insulin to induce hypoglycemia and coma
24
Q
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
A
induce epileptic seizures with electric shock
25
prefrontal lobotomy
destroys tracts connecting frontal lobes to other areas of the brain; led to listlessness, apathy, and loss of cognitive abilities
26
cathartic method
release of emotional tension triggered by expressing previously forgotten thoughts about an earlier emotional trauma
27
defense mechanisms
strategies used by ego to protect itself from anxiety
28
id
present at birth; biological and unconscious; seeks immediate gratification; when id is not satisfied, tension is produced and id drives a person to get rid of tension
29
ego
primarily conscious; mediates between demands of reality and id's demands for immediate gratification
30
superego
a person's conscience; develops as we incorporate parental and society values
31
psychoanalysis
goal to understand early-childhood experiences, the nature of key relationships, and the patterns in current relationships; therapist is listening for core emotional and relationship temest
32
transference
responding towards an analyst in a similar way as towards important people in the person's past
33
countertransference
an analyst responding towards a patient in a similar way as towards important people in their past
34
behaviorism
focus on observable behavior, emphasis on learning
35
three types of learning
classical conditioning, operant conditioning, modeling
36
law of effect
behavior that is followed by satisfying consequences will be repeated; behavior that is followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged
37
gene expression
proteins influence whether the action of a specific gene will occur
38
polygenic
multiple genes expressions interacting with a person's environment
39
epigenetics
how the environment can alter gene expression or function
40
shared environment
events and experiences that family members have in common
41
nonshared environment
events and experiences that are distinct to each family member
42
molecular genetics
identifies genes and their functions; identifies differences between people in the sequence of their genes and in the structure of their genes
43
polymorphism
difference in DNA sequence on a gene occurring in a population
44
single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)
different between people in a single nucleotide in the DNA sequence of a particular gene
45
copy number variations (CNVs)
abnormal copy of one or more sections of DNA within the gene(s)
46
genome-wide association studies (GWAS)
key method to examine SNPs and CNVs; isolate differences in the sequence of genes between people who have a psychological disorder and people who do not
47
Priory of St. Mary of Bethlehem
one of the first mental institutions; the wealthy paid to gape at the patients
48
gene-environment interaction
a person's sensitivity to an environmental event is influenced by genes
49
excitatory
push forward signal; glutamate, epinephrine, and norepinephrine
50
inhibitory
block signal; GABA, serotonin
51
reuptake
reabsoprtion of leftover neurotransmitters by presynaptic neuron
52
epigenetic effects can...
be passed down across multiple generations from parents to children and even grandparents to grandchildren
53
serotonin and dopamine implicate in
depression, mania, schizophrenia
54
norepinephrine
communicates with the sympathetic nervous system to produce states of high arousal; implicated in anxiety and other stress-related conditions
55
Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
inhibitory; implicated in anxiety
56
ways in which neurotransmitters may contribute to psychopathology
- excessive or inadequate levels
- problems in synthesis of neurotransmitters at the metabolic level
- insufficient or excessive reuptake
- faulty neurotransmitter receptors
57
prefrontal cortex
regulates the amygdala
58
white matter
consists of fibers that connect cells in cortex with other areas
59
ventricles
cavities in the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid
60
brain development
begins early in the first trimester of pregnancy and continues into early adulthood; a third of our genes are expressed in the brain
61
pruning
elimination of synaptic connections; connections become fewer, but faster; environment influences which connections are maintained
62
structural (anatomical) connectivity
how different structures are connected via white matter
63
functional connectivity
how brain regions are functionally connected as assessed by correlations in blood oxygen dependent (BOLD) signal measured via fMRI
64
effective connectivity
helps to understand direction and timing of activity in brain regions
65
brain networks
brain regions that are thought to facilitate similar functions, becuase they are active at the same time as one another
66
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
innervate (supples nerves to) the endocrine glands, the heart, and smooth muscles throughout the body
67
two branches of the autonomic nervous system
sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system
68
sympathetic nervous system (SNS)
"fight or flight" response
69
parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)
"calm down"; helps body conserve resources
70
HPA axis
hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and arsenal cortex; involved in response to stress
71
stress has an effect on...
the immune system
72
cytokines
a protein that initiate responses to infection such as fatigue, inflammation, and activation of the HPA axis
73
reductionism
the view that when studying something it can be reduced to basic elements; such as understanding the function of neurons in order to understand mental disorders
74
behavioral activation (BA) therapy
engage in tasks that are positively reinforcing
75
exposure therapy
anxiety will extinguish if the person can face the situation long enough with no actual harm occurring
76
cognition
broad category of mental processes of perceiving, recognizing, conceiving, judging, and reasoning
77
schema
organized network of previously accumulated knowledge
78
if new information doesn't fit a schema...
- reorganize the schema, or
- construe information to fit schema
79
implicit memory
a memory formed without conscious awareness
80
cognitive behavior therapy (CBT)
attends to thoughts, perceptions, judgements, self-statements, and unconscious assumptions
81
cognitive restructuring
changing a pattern of thought
82
thoughts are regarded as...
causing the other features of the disorder
83
moods
emotional experiences that endure for a longer period of time
84
expressive emotion response
behavioral and facial expressions
85
experiential emotion response
subjective feeling; how someone reports how they feel at any given moment
86
physiological emotion response
changes int eh body that accompany emotion
87
ideal affect
kinds of emotional states that a person ideally wants to feel
88
ideal affect...
- varies depending on cultural factors
- shown to be linked to drug use
89
the quality of relationships...
influences different disorders
90
interpersonal therapy (IPT)
impact of current relationships on psychopathology
91
diagnosis
agreed-on definitions and classification of disorders by symptoms and signs
92
reliability
consistency of measurement; measured from 0 to 1.0
93
content validity
whether a measure adequately samples the domain of interest
94
information the DSM-5 provides for each disorder
diagnostic criteria for a diagnosis; description of associated features; summary of research literature; defines diagnoses on the basis of symptoms; chapters are organized to reflect patters of comorbidity and shared causes
95
comorbidity
presence of a second diagnosis
96
negative effect of diagnoses
- diagnosis might contribute to stigma
- may lose sight of the uniqueness of that person
97
structured interviews
standardized interview; all interviewers ask the same questions in a predetermined order
98
stress
subjective experience of distress in response to perceived environmental problems
99
life stressors
environmental problems that trigger the subjective sense of stress
100
personal inventory
self-report questionnaire
101
cognitive tests
assess current cognitive ability; used to predict school performance, diagnose learning disabilities or intellectual ability, and included in neuropsychological examinations
102
experience sampling
individuals self-monitor and track their own behavior
103
self-report questionnaires
use to help plan treatment targets; can help to determine if change occurred in response to an intervention
104
computerized axial tomography (CT or CAT)
detects differences in tissue density or structural abnormalities; some radiation
105
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
electromagnetic signals translate into a picture of brain tissue; no radiation
106
functional MRI (fMRI)
measures blood flow in the brain, proxy for neural activity
107
positron emission tomography (PET)
used to assess neurotransmitter functioning in the brain
108
single photon emission computerized tomography (SPECT)
radioactive isotope is injected into the bloodstream
109
connectivity
areas of the brain that communicate with one another
110
structural (anatomical) connectivity
how different parts of the brain are connected via white matter
111
functional connectivity
how different parts of the brain are correlated based on fMRI BOLD signals
112
effective connectivity
reveals correlations between BOLD activation and direction and timing of those activations
113
psychophysiology
study of bodily changes associated with psychological events
114
strategies to avoid bias
- increase graduate students' cultural awareness
- ensure participants understand assessment tasks
- distinguish "cultural responsiveness" from "cultural stereotyping"
- cultural humility
115
science
the systematic pursuit of knowledge through observation; forming a theory and gathering data to test theory
116
theory
set of propositions developed to explain observations
117
hypotheses
expectations about what should occur if a theory is true
118
case study
recording detailed information about one person at a time
119
correlational method
variables measured as they exist in nature; Do variable X and variable Y vary together?; cannot determine cause-effect relationships
120
longitudinal design
studies participants over time; examines whether causes are present before disorder develops
121
high-risk method
include only those who are at greatest likelihood of developing a disorder; reduces the cost of longitudinal research
122
cross-sectional design
measures the causes and effects at the same point in time
123
third-variable problem
variable Z causes both variable X and variable Y
124
directionality problem
variable X may cause variable Y or variable Y may cause variable X
125
overcoming the directionality problem
longitudinal design, high-risk method, cross-sectional design, third-variable problem
126
epidemiology
study of the distribution of disorders in a population
127
three features of a disorder
prevalence, incidence, correlates
128
prevalence
proportion of people with disorder currently or during lifetime
129
incidence
proportion of new cases in some time period
130
correlates
variables associated with presence of disorder
131
examples of correlational research
- family method
- twin method
- adoption studies
- cross-fostering
132
the experiment
- most powerful tool for determining causal relationships
- involves: random assignment, independent variable, dependent variable
- used to evaluate treatment effectiveness
133
experimental effect
differences between conditions on the dependent variable
134
internal validity
extent to which experimental effect is due to the independent variable (vs. other possible explanations/confounds)
135
control group
participants who do not receive treatment
136
external validity
extent to which results generalize beyond the study
137
single-case experiments
experimenter studies how one person responds to manipulations to an independent variable
138
comparison group
provides evidence that changes during treatment were due to the treatment
139
treatment-as-usual
comparison of standard treatment to a new treatment offering
140
placebo control
engage patient's attention but without active ingredients of therapy
141
active treatment control
compare new treatment against well-tested treatment
142
dissemination
process of adoption of efficacious treatments in the community
143
replication
findings from one research study hold up when that study is repeated a second time; reproducible findings
144
publication bias
tendency to publish only positive results
145
issues in research methods that can contribute to replication failures
- small samples
- unreliable measures
- methods of original research study are not described well
- methodological differences or sample characteristics
146
confirmation bias
selecting findings that support hypotheses
147
p-hacking
tweaking data until a significant finding is identified
148
anxiety
apprehension over an anticipated problem; future oriented; moderate physiological arousal
149
fear
a reaction to immediate danger; fight or flight response; present oriented; higher physiological arousal
150
DSM-5 anxiety disorders
- specific phobia
- social anxiety disorder
- panic disorder
- agoraphobia
- generalized anxiety disorder
151
DSM-5 criteria for each anxiety disorder
- symptoms interfere with important areas of functioning
- symptoms are not caused by a drug or a medical condition
- the fears and anxieties are distinct from the symptom of another anxiety disorder
152
specific phobias
disproportionate fear caused by a specific object or situation
153
DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for specific phobia
- marked fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation
- the phobic object or situation almost always provokes immediate fear or anxiety
- the phobic object or situation is actively avoided or endured with intense fear or anxiety
- the fear or anxiety is out of proportion to the actual danger posed by the specific object or situation and to the sociocultural context
- the fear, anxiety, or avoidance is persistent, typically lasting for 6 months or more
- the fear, anxiety, or avoidance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning
154
Mowrer's two-factor model
- step 1: classical conditioning --> a person learns to fear a neutral stimulus that is paried with an intrinsically aversive stimulus
- step 2: operant conditioning --> a person gains relief by avoiding the stimulus and avoidance is maintained through negative reinforcement
155
social anxiety disorder
persistent unrealistically intense fear of one or more social situations that might involve being scrutinized by or exposed to unfamiliar people
156
DSM-5 diagnosis criteria for social anxiety disorder
- marked and disproportionate fear consistently triggered by exposure to potential social scrutiny
- exposure to the trigger leads to intense anxiety about being evaluated negatively
- trigger situations are avoided or else endured with intense anxiety
- anxiety must occur in one or more situations
157
etiology of social anxiety disorder - behavioral factors
- classical and operant conditioning
- safety behaviors maintain and intensify social difficulties
158
etiology of social anxiety disorder - cognitive factors
- overly negative in evaluating their social performance
- excessive attention to internal (e.g., heart rate) vs. external (e.g., social) cues
159
panic attack
sudden attack of intense apprehension, terror, and feelings of impending doom; symptoms come on rapidly and peak in intensity within 10 minutes
160
panic attacks accompanied by at least four other symptoms
- physical symptoms
- depersonalization
- derealization
- fears of going crazy, losing control, or dying
161
physical symptoms that can occur with panic attacks
shortness of breath, heart palpitations, nausea, upset stomach, chest pain, feelings of choking and smothering, dizziness, lightheadedness, faintness, sweating, chills, heat sensations, numbness or tingling sensations, and trembling
162
depersonalization
feeling of being outside one's body
163
derealization
feeling of the world not being real
164
panic disorder
recurrent panic attacks unrelated to specific situations; worry about having more panic attacks
165
DSM-5 criteria for panic disorder
- recurrent unexpected panic attacks
- at least 1 month of concern about the possibility of more attacks occurring or the consequences of an attack, or maladaptive behavioral changes because of the attacks
166
etiology of panic disorder - cognitive influences
- catastrophic misinterpretations of somatic changes --> interpreted as impending doom, beliefs increase anxiety and arousal and creates a vicious cycle
167
anxiety sensitivity index
measures intensity of fear in response to bodily sensation; self-report questionnaire
168
etiology of panic disorder - behavioral factors
interoceptive conditioning -> classical conditioning of panic in response to internal bodily sensations and operant conditioning
169
agoraphobia
anxiety about situations in which it would be embarrassing or difficult to escape if anxiety symptoms occurred; causes significant impairment in daily life
170
DSM-5 criteria of agoraphobia
- disproportionate and marked fear or anxiety about at least 2 situations where it would be difficult to escape or receive help in the event of incapacitation, embarrassing symptoms, or panic-like symptoms
- these situations consistently provoke fear or anxiety
- these situations are avoided, require the presence of a companion or are endured with intense fear or anxiety
171
etiology of agoraphobia
- genetic vulnerability
- life events
- fear-of-fear hypothesis
172
fear-of-fear hypothesis
negative thoughts about the consequences of experiencing anxiety in public; catastrophic beliefs that anxiety will lead to socially unacceptable consequences
173
generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
excessive, uncontrollable, and long-lasting worry about minor things
174
worry
cognitive tendency to chew on a problem and to be unable to let go of it
175
age of onset for GAD
adolescence
176
DSM-5 criteria for GAD
- excessive anxiety and worry at least 50% of days about multiple domains of events or activities
- the person finds it hard to control the worry
- the anxiety and worry are associated with at least three (or one in children) of the following: restlessness or feeling keyed up or on edge, tiring easily, difficulty concentrating or mind going blank, irritability, muscle tension, sleep disturbance
177
etiology of GAD
contrast avoidance model
178
contrast avoidance model
- people with GAD find it highly aversive to experience shifts in emotions
- to avoid shifts, they prefer a constant state of worry
- keep a more stable emotional state so they experience less of an increase in physiological arousal in response to negative stimuli
179
comorbidity with anxiety disorders
more than 50% of those with anxiety disorder meet criteria for another anxiety disorder; 75% of those with anxiety disorder meet criteria for another PD; 60% also have depression; OCD also common
180
gender factors for anxiety disorders
women are twice as likely as men to have an anxiety disorder
181
classical conditioning in Mowrer's model can occur in different ways
- direct experience
- modeling
- verbal instruction
182
genetic factors of anxiety disorders
- twin studies suggest heritability of about 50-60%
- some genes may elevate risk for several anxiety disorders
- genetic vulnerability for anxiety and depression may overlap
183
neurobiological correlates with anxiety disorders
- brain regions (amygdala, medial prefrontal cortex)
- activity of neurotransmitters (low serotonin and GABA, increased levels of norepinephrine)
- HPA axis
184
personality factors related to anxiety
- behavioral inhibition
- neuroticism
185
behavioral inhibition
tendency to become agitated, distressed, and cry in unfamiliar or novel settings
186
neuroticism
tendency to experience frequent or intense negative affect
187
cognitive factors related to anxiety
- sustained negative beliefs about the future
- belief that one lacks control over environment
- attention to threat
188
treatment of anxiety disorders
- exposure
- mindfulness and acceptance treatments
- CBT for social anxiety
- social skills training
189
treatment of agoraphobia
- CBT
- systematic exposure to feared situations
190
treatment of GAD
- relaxation training to promote calmness
- cognitive behavioral methods (improve problem-solving, challenge and modify negative thoughts, increase ability to tolerate uncertainty, worry only during "scheduled" times, focus on present moment)
191
medication for anxiety disorder
- anxiolytics
- antidepressants
- benzodiazepines (e.g., Valium, Xanax)
192
anxiolytics
drugs that reduce anxiety
193
obsessive-compulsive disorder
diagnosis based on presence of obsessions and/or compulsions
194
age of onset for OCD
often begins before the age of 14
195
obsessions
- intrusive and persistent thoughts, images, or impulses that are uncontrollable
- often person recognizes the thoughts are irrational
- most common: contamination, responsibility for harm, sex and morality, violence, religion, and symmetry/order
196
compulsions
repetitive, clearly excessive behaviors or mental acts to reduce anxiety; negatively reinforcing
197
DSM-5 criteria for OCD
- obsessions --> recurrent, intrusive, persistent unwanted thoughts, urges, or images; the person tried to ignore, suppress or neutralize the thoughts, urges, or images
- compulsions --> repetitive behaviors or thoughts that the person feels compelled to perform to prevent distress or a dreaded event; the person feels driven to perform the repetitive behaviors or thoughts in response to obsessions or according to rigid rules
- the obsessions or compulsions are either: time consuming or cause clinically significant distress and/or impairment
198
etiology of OCD - behavioral models
- previously functional responses for reducing threat become habitual
- responses are difficult to override after the threat is gone
- once a conditioned response is developed, it is slower to change the response
199
etiology of OCD - cognitive models
- people with OCD try harder to suppress their obsessions than others
- thought-action fusion --> thinking about something is as morally wrong as engaging in the action; thinking about an event makes it more likely to occur; tendency to feel responsible for preventing harm
200
body dysmorphic disorder (BDD)
preoccupation with one or more imagined or exaggerated defect in appearance
201
BDD behaviors
- find it difficult to stop thinking about their concerns (on average, 3-8 hours per day)
- compelled to engage in certain behaviors to reduce distress (e.g., checking appearance in mirror)
- symptoms are extremely distressing
- interferes with functioning
202
DSM-5 criteria for BDD
- preoccupation with one or more perceived defects in appearance
- others find the perceived defect(s) as slight or unobservable
- the person has performed repetitive behaviors or mental acts (e.g., mirror checking, seeking reassurance, or excessive grooming) in response to the appearance concerns
- preoccupation is not restricted to concerns about weight or body fat
203
etiology of BDD
- people with BDD are usually detail-oriented, which influences how they look at features
- instead of looking at the whole, they examine one feature at a time
- consider attractiveness more important than others
- many have history of appearance-related teasing
204
hoarding disorder
the need to acquire is excessive; extremely attached to possessions; very resistant to efforts to get rid of them
205
age of onset for hoarding disorder
often begins in childhood or early adolescence
206
DSM-5 criteria for hoarding disorder
- persistent difficulty discarding or parting with possessions, regardless of their actual value
- perceived need to save items
- distress associated with discarding
- the accumulation of a large number of possessions clutters active living spaces to the extent that their intended use is compromised unless others intervene
207
etiology of hoarding disorder
- poor organizational abilities (difficulties with attention, categorization, and decision making)
- unusual beliefs about possessions (ability to see potential in each object, extreme emotional attachment to objects)
- avoidance behaviors
208
treatment of OCD, BDD, and hoarding disorder - medications
- antidepressants
- SSRIs (serotonin reuptake inhibitors)
209
treatment of OCD - exposure and response prevention (ERP)
- exposure to situations that elicit obsessions
- prevention from engaging in compulsive behaviors
- exposure hierarchy --> begins with tackling less threatening stimuli and progresses to more threatening stimuli
- 69-75% show significant improvement
210
treatment of BDD - ERP
- exposure to situations that elicit obsessions --> interact with people critical of their looks
- prevention from engaging in compulsive behaviors --> avoid activities used to reassure themselves about their appearance
- many people continue to experience at least mild symptoms after treatment
211
treatment of hoarding disorder - ERP
- exposure to situations that elicit obsessions --> getting rid of possessions
- prevention from engaging in compulsive behaviors --> counting or sorting possessions
- motivational strategies to facilitate insight into problems caused by symptoms
- tools and strategies to help organize and remove clutter
212
treatment of OCD, BDD, and hoarding disorder - cognitive therapy
- challenge beliefs about anticipated consequences of not engaging in compulsions
- treatment outcomes comparable to ERP
213
treatment of OCD - deep brain stimulation
implanting electrodes into the brain, half attain significant relief within a couple of months
214
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
exposure to a serious trauma --> an event that involved actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violation
215
PTSD symptoms in four categories
- intrusion --> e.g., recurrent and intrusive memories, dreams, flashbacks
- avoidance --> internal and external reminders
- persistent negative alterations in cognitions and mood --> e.g., negative beliefs and negative emotional states
- recurrent changes in arousal and reactivity --> e.g., aggressiveness, hypervigilance, exaggerated startle response
216
age of onset for PTSD
symptom duration of >1 month; symptoms may develop soon after the trauma
217
other symptoms of PTSD
unemployment, suicidality, and medical illness
218
PTSD epidemiology
- usually comorbid with other conditions --> anxiety disorders, depression, substance use, conduct disorder, personality disordr
- 1.5 to 2 times more likely in women
219
acute stress disorder (ASD)
- symptoms similar to PTSD
- shorter duration of symptoms
220
age of onset for ASD
3 days to 1 month after trauma
221
etiology of PTSD - commonalities with other anxiety disorders
- genetic risk
- differences in brain activity --> greater amygdala activation in response to threat, diminished activation of regions of medial prefrontal cortex
- childhood exposure to trauma
- greater reactivity to signals of threat
- Mowrer's two-factor model of conditioning
222
etiology of PTSD - unique factors
- severity and type of trauma --> directly witnessing violence vs. indirect exposure; trauma caused by humans vs. natural disasters
- neurobiology: the hippocampus
- protective factors --> cognitive abilities and social support
223
coping with trauma - dissociation
people who cope with trauma by trying to avoid it may be more likely to develop PTSD
224
dissociation
a form of avoidance, keeping a person from confronting memories
225
treatment of PTSD - medications
- SSRIs --> Paxil and Zoloft
- Benzodiazepine (e.g., Xanax)
226
treatment of PTSD - exposure therapy
- focus on memories and reminders of trauma
- exposure hierarchy
227
treatment of PTSD - cognitive therapy
reduce overly negative interpretation about trauma and its meaning
228
treatment of PTSD - short-term treatment
short-term treatment of ASD may prevent PTSD
229
age of onset of anxiety disorders
symptoms persist for at least 6 months (at least 1 month for panic disorder)
