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BIO 215 > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are the 6 Kingdoms?

A

-Bacteria
-Protista
-Archaea
-Plantae
-Fungi
-Animalia

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2
Q

Taxonomy levels LG -> SM:

A

-Domain
-Kingdom
-Phylum
-Class
-Order
-Family
-Genus
-Species

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3
Q

Divergent evolution:

A

Two species evolve in different directions from a common ancestor (think darwins finches)

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4
Q

Convergent evolution:

A

two distantly-related species independently evolve similar phenotypes

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5
Q

Fossils:

A

-provide record of course of life over time
-shows waxing & waning of biological diversity

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6
Q

Homologous structures

A

structures with
different appearances and functions that all
derived from the same body part in a
common ancestor
(different functions, same underlying structure. thumb vs paw)

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7
Q

Evidence for evolution:

A

-Homologous structures
-Adaptation
-Artificial selection
-Vestigial structures

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8
Q

Vestigial structures:

A

Structures that don’t have an apparent use in the body. (think blind fish w/ eyes, fingernails on sealions, hip bones on snakes)

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9
Q

Ernst Mayr’s biological species concept:

A

groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups
(species consist of populations whose members repro w/ each other and produce fertile offspring)

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10
Q

Mechanisms of reproductive isolation:

A

-Temporal isolation
-Ecological isolation
-Geographic isolation
-Behavioral isolation
-Mechanical isolation
-Prevention of gamete fusion
-Protozygotic isolation

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11
Q

Behavioral isolation:

A

when species are reproductively isolated from others due to differences in behavior. (think red footed vs blue footed booby)

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12
Q

Mechanical isolation

A

isolation where two species cannot physically undergo fertilization.(think bumblebees & hummingbirds)

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13
Q

Postzygotic isolation:

A

Prevents normal development into reproducing adults

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14
Q

Hybridization:

A

mating between two different species with a zygote being formed

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15
Q

Hybrids often:

A

-Do not develop into adults
-Do not develop into fertile adults

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16
Q

Five elements of evolutionary change (Not in HW-equilibrium):

A

-Mutation
-Geneflow
-Nonrandom mating
-Genetic drift
-Natural selection

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17
Q

Fitness:

A

-relative to reproductive success.
-Individuals w/ one phenotype have more surviving offspring than those with an alternative phenotype.

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18
Q

Fitness is a combination of:

A

-Survival
-Mating success
-# of offspring per mating that survive
-Traits favored in one environment

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19
Q

Natural selection:

A

environmental conditions determine which individuals in a population produce the most offspring

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20
Q

3 conditions for natural selection:

A

-Variation in individuals in population
-Variation among said individuals result in the # of surviving offspring
-Variation must be genetically inherited

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21
Q

Stabilizing selection:

A

favors an average phenotype.

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22
Q

Directional selection:

A

shifts the range of preferred phenotypes

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23
Q

Disruptive selection:

A

Selects against the average phenotype and favors the extremes.

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24
Q

Gradualism:

A

slow, progressive changes over a very long time

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25
Q

Punctuated equilibrium:

A

brief periods of change with long periods of stability

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26
Q

Adaptive radiation:

A

closely related species that have recently evolved from a common ancestor by adapting to different parts of the environment

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27
Q

Adaptive radiation occurs:

A

-occurs through repeated instances of sympatric speciation
-produces suite of species adapted to different habitats
-in an environment w/ few other species & resources (Remote islands, Hawaii/Galapagos)
-Catastrophic event leading to extinction of other species

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28
Q

Hawaiian Drosophila:

A

The fruit fly in Hawaii that quickly evolved/adapted to the environment as it had many habitats w/ no natural prevention for fruit flies.
-Diversified rapidly, both morphological and behavioral

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29
Q

Systematics of biology:

A

-All living organisms share many characteristics while still differing substantially from other groups
-Biologists group organisms based on shared phenotypic characteristics & newer molecular sequence data
-Hypothesis about evolutionary relatedness
-Tremendous diversity of life

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30
Q

Phylogenic trees:

A

a diagram that represents evolutionary relationships among organisms.

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31
Q

Phylogenic tree ROOT:

A

-Beginning
-indicates that an ancestral lineage gave rise to all organisms on the tree

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32
Q

Phylogenic tree BRANCH POINT:

A

-Beginning of branch
-A branch point indicates where two lineages diverged.

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33
Q

Phylogenic tree BASAL TAXON:

A

-End of branch
-A lineage that evolved early and
remains unbranched

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34
Q

Phylogenic tree SISTER TAXA:

A

-When one branch point shares multiple ends
-When two lineages stem from the same branch point, they
are sister taxa.

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35
Q

Phylogenic tree POLYTOMY:

A

-When multiple 3+ branches
A branch with more than two lineages is a polytomy.

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36
Q

Monophyletic/Clade:

A

Includes the most recent common ancestor of the group and all of its descendants (clade)

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37
Q

Paraphyletic:

A

Includes the most recent common ancestor of the group, but not all of the ancestor’s descendants. Usually only ones that share a certain trait

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38
Q

Polyphyletic (Extant aquatic
plants):

A

Does not include the most
recent common ancestor of all
members of the group.
some

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39
Q

Clade:

A

All the organisms within a clade stem from a single point on the tree. A clade may contain
multiple groups, as in the case of animals, fungi and plants, or a single group, as in the case
of flagellates

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40
Q

Scientific names:

A

Binomial names written in italics, genus/species, with the genus name capitalized

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41
Q

“Tree of life model”

A

Inspired by a sketch from Charles Darwin. the “tree of life” has a single trunk and many branches.

42
Q

What was the first virus to be discovered?

A

The tobacco mosaic virus

43
Q

Fundamental properties of life:

A

-Growth
-Cellular division
-Sensitivity
-Development
-Reproduction
-Regulation
-Homeostasis
-Heredity

44
Q

Structure of all viruses:

A

-Nucleic acid core surrounded by capsid
-No cytoplasm, not a cell

45
Q

Nucleic acid can be:

A

-DNA or RNA
-Circular or linear
-RNA may be segmented or not
-Single/Double stranded

46
Q

How are viruses classified?

A

-By genome
-RNA viruses, DNA viruses, retroviruses

47
Q

T or F: Viruses are very diverse

A

T
-Structure, host species, and replication change wildly

48
Q

Virions:

A

-are infectious virus particles outside cells
-Viruses are not alive or dead but inactive or active

49
Q

Capsid:

A

a protein sheath that most viruses develop around their nucleic core.
(composed of repeats of ~1-3 proteins)

50
Q

Many animal viruses have:

A

an envelope derived from host cell membranes w/ vital proteins

51
Q

The 2 most common virus shapes:

A

– Helical (filamentous) – rodlike or threadlike
– Icosahedral – 20-sided (similar to soccer ball)

52
Q

Complex viruses:

A

– T-even bacteriophage – binal symmetry
(head-to-tail)
– Poxviruses – multilayered capsid

53
Q

Glycoproteins:

A

can attach to host cell surface receptors to facilitate infection

54
Q

T or F: Viruses can reproduce anywhere

A

F. Viruses can only reproduce inside cells, outside they are metabolically inert virions.

55
Q

T or F. Virions have plenty of ribosomes and enzymes for protein synthesis

A

F. They lack ribosomes/enzymes required for protein or nucleic synthesis

56
Q

Viral Genomes:

A

Vary greatly in both the type of nucleic acid and # of strands

57
Q

Most RNA viruses are:

A

-Single stranded
-Replicated in host cell’s cytoplasm
-Replication in cytosol is error-prone (high rates of mutation/difficult targets for immune system)

58
Q

Baltimore classification system:

A

Substantial variation exists in how mRNA is produced.

59
Q

Positive strand virus:

A

viral RNA serves as mRNA (Group IV: Coronaviruses)

60
Q

Negative-strand virus:

A

genome is complementary to the final mRNA (Group V: influenza, rabies, ebola)

61
Q

Retroviruses:

A

employ reverse transcriptase to reverse transcribe viral RNA into DNA (Group VI: HIV)

62
Q

Most DNA viruses are:

A

-Double stranded
-replicated in the nucleus of eukaryotic cell

63
Q

Viruses are found:

A

in every kind of organisms investigated, more viruses exist than organisms.

64
Q

Host range:

A

types of organisms infected, each virus has a limited host range.

65
Q

Tissue tropism:

A

inside a host the virus may only
infect certain tissues (e.g., rabies – nervous tissues)

66
Q

Permissive cells:

A

Allow viral entry

67
Q

T or F Viruses can remain dormant/latent for years.

A

T. Chicken pox can reemerge as shingles.

68
Q

Virus reproduction cycle:

A
  • Attachment/adsorption
    -Penetration/injection/entry
    -Synthesis/replication
    -Assembly
    -Release/egress
    -Eclipse period
69
Q

Attachment/adsorption

A

The target is part of surface of host cell

70
Q

Penetration/injection/entry

A

Pierces or fuses with cell membrane to inject
viral genome

71
Q

Synthesis/replication

A

-Virus may immediately take over the cell’s
replication and protein synthesis enzymes to
synthesize viral components

72
Q

Assembly:

A

-Assembly of viral components to produce virions

73
Q

Release/egress

A

-– Mature virions are released via enzymatically lysing host or budding through host cell membrane

74
Q

Eclipse period:

A
  • Time between attachment and the formation of new viral particles
    – If a cell is lysed during eclipse period, few if any active virions can be released
75
Q

Bacteriophage:

A

-Viruses that infect bacteria
-Diverse; united only by bacterial hosts
-Called phage for short

76
Q

Lytic cycle (virulent virus):

A

-Virus lyses the infected host cell

77
Q

Lysogenic cycle (temperate virus):

A

-Virus doesn’t immediately kill the infected cell
-Virus nucleic acid is integrated into hose cell genome prophage
-Integration allows viral DNA to be replicated along
with the host cell’s DNA as the host divides

78
Q

Phage conversion:

A

– Phenotype or characteristics of
the infected (lysogenic) bacteria -
altered by the prophage
– Prophage genes are expressed

79
Q

Phage conversion of
Vibrio cholerae (type of bacteria):

A

-phage contains gene for cholera
-Gene is incorporated into bacterial
host genome
-Cholera toxin expression converts
harmless bacteria into disease-
causing cholera

80
Q

Plant viruses:

A

-Galls, chlorosis
(yellowing), necrosis
(dead tissue),
abnormal growth
-Can result in
substantial economic
losses (crops and
landscaping plants)

81
Q

Vaccinations:

A

-Gives immune system information
– “Live” attenuated virus – causes infection but
symptoms are generally very mild (e.g., smallpox)
– “Killed” vaccine uses viral glycoproteins or other viral
molecules (unable to infect)
– mRNA vaccine provides information about surface
proteins (e.g., spike protein)
– Not associated with autism
– Limits community spread and severity
– Limits mutations -> variants (some are dangerous)

82
Q

Antiviral drugs:

A

-Help limit symptoms
-Generally limited success in curing

83
Q

Human immunodeficiency virus:

A
  • HIV/AIDS causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome
    -Frist reported in the US 1981
    -African origin 1950’s
84
Q

Those found resistant to HIV:

A

– Exposed repeatedly never become positive
– Others become HIV-positive without developing AIDS
– Others have little resistance and progress rapidly
from infection to death
– Resistance may be related to smallpox resistance (lack surface receptor)

85
Q

HIV targets:

A

CD4+ cells, mainly helper T-cells

86
Q

Helper/T-cells

A

– Without these cells, the body cannot mount an effective immune response
– Host may ultimately die from opportunistic infections (otherwise rare conditions)
– Clinical symptoms usually appear after 8–10 year latent period

87
Q

HIV infection cycle:

A
  1. Attachment
  2. Entry
  3. RNA -> DNA
  4. DNA -> host genome
  5. Transcription -> viral genome and viral proteins
    6/7. HIV assembly and export
88
Q

Influenza:

A

-One of the most lethal viruses in human history
– 20–50 million people died worldwide between 1918 and 1919.

89
Q

Flu viruses are enveloped in _____ viruses

A

Animal

90
Q

3 types based on capsid protein

A

-Type A serious epidemics in humans and other animals
-Type B/C mild human infections

91
Q

Subtypes:

A

– Hemagglutinin (H) – Aids in viral entry
– Neuraminidase (N) – Aids in viral exit

92
Q

Flu viruses can also undergo:

A

-Genetic recombination when 2 subtypes infect the same cell
-creates novel combinations of spikes unrecognizable by human antibodies

93
Q

Antigenic shifts have caused the following pandemics:

A

– Spanish flu of 1918, A(H1N1)
* Killed 20–50 million worldwide
– Asian flu of 1957, A(H2N2)
* Killed over 100,000 Americans
– Hong Kong flu of 1968, A(H3N2)
* Infected 50 million in U.S.
* Killed 70,000 in U.S.

94
Q

Emerging viruses:

A

-Are viruses that extend their host range
-Often deadly to new host

95
Q

Hantavirus:

A

-Causes deadly pneumonia
-Natural host is deer mice
-Controlling deer mice has limited disease

96
Q

Ebola virus:

A

– Causes severe hemorrhagic fever
– Among most lethal infectious
diseases (70-90% mortality)
– Host – great apes and bats

97
Q

SARS-CoV-2:

A

– Severe acute respiratory syndrome
– Also affects other systems
– Drug treatments are being developed and tested
– Long-term efficacy of vaccines is being evaluated

98
Q

Virus & Cancer relationship:

A

-Viruses may contribute ~15% of all human cancers
-They cause cancer by altering the growth properties of human cells

99
Q

Prions

A

“Proteinaceous infections particles”
-Causes transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. (Mad cow)
-Host has normal prion proteins, misfolded ones cause disease

100
Q

Viroids:

A

-Tiny naked molecules of circular RNA (no protein)
-Causes diseases in plants

BIO 215 (1 decks)

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