Exam 1 Flashcards
Continuous
Consistently and gradually changing across development
Ex. From seed to tree
Discontinuous
Make big shifts to qualitatively new behaviors
Ex. Caterpillar to butterfly
Nature
Biological endowment
Nuture
Environment (physical, social, etc)
All nature/all nurture examples
Language acquisition, number and object understanding
Nature/nurture interaction
ex Antisocial behavior
can be genetic (nature) but can also emerge due to environment (nurture)
Active child
Children participate in their own development
- diff interests lead to diff expertise
Passive child
Children are at the mercy of their environment
- blank slate
Biological perspective
Development is rooted in biology
- all nature
(Mat theory
Ethological theory)
Maturational theory (bio P)
Child development reflects a specific and prearranged plan within the body
Dr. Arnold Gesell (mat theory, bio P)
Growth of NS
as the NS grows, the mind develops and behavior changes accordingly
Ethological theory (bio P)
Views development from an evolutionary perspective (ethological)
- behaviors are adaptive: we develop in certain ways bc it aids to our survival
Critical period
Time in development when a specific type of learning can take place
- learning something before/after CP is hard
Lorenz and imprinting
Learning perspective
Development is determined by environment
-all nurture
(Skinner: operant conditioning
Bandura: social cognitive)
Operant conditioning- Skinner (learning P)
Behavior consequences determine whether behavior is repeated
Reinforcement: increases likelihood
Punishment: decreases likelihood
+R/P
Something is added
Ex. Getting paid for doing chores
-R/P
Something is removed
Ex. Chore from list
Social cognitive - Bandura (learning P)
Behaviors develop as children observe a combo of reward, punishment, and other’s behaviors
- mimic those see rewarded
- avoid behaviors when ppl are punished
- Bandura: bobo doll
Psychodynamic perspective
Development unfolds acc to resolutions of conflicts at diff stages
(Freud: 3
Psychosocial)
Psychodynamic theory - Freud (psychodynamic P)
Early experiences est patterns that endure throughout a person’s life
Conflict bt:
Id: primitive instinct
Ego: rational/ practical
Superego: moral agent
Psychosocial theory (psychodynamic P)
Development consists of a seq of stages, each defined by a key crisis/challenge
Cognitive-developmental perspective
Development reflects children trying to make sense of the world
Piaget’s theory - Piaget (cognitive-dev P)
Diff thinking stages that develop thru children’s shifting competencies and changing theories of the world
Contextual perspective
Development is driven by a child’s interaction w their immediate and distant environment
- all nurture but includes both direct and indirect influences
Sociocultural perspective - Vygotsky (contextual P)
Emphasizes the role “experts” in conveying cultural expectations and knowledge to the next gen
- children’s development is enmeshed w the culture in which they grow up
- teach skills that children need to succeed in their culture
Scientific method - 4 steps
- Choose question
- Formulate hypothesis
- Develop method to test hypothesis
- Draw conclusion about hypothesis (null vs alt)
Systemic (naturalistic) observation
Watching participants and carefully recording what they do/say
- can also use video recordings or transcripts
Naturalistic observation
Spontaneous behavior in real-life situations
Structured/controlled observation
Researchers create a setting that’s likely to elicit a behavior of interest
- have a control over the setting
Strengths: Systemic (naturalistic) observation
- allows researchers to study “natural behaviors”
- access to behavior that’s difficult to measure experimentally
Weaknesses: Systemic (naturalistic) observation
- observations can distort behavior
- lack of control over potential confounding variables
Sampling behavior w task (SBT)
Create an activity that will elicit behavior of interest
Ex digit span, PPVT
Strengths: Sampling behavior w task (SBT)
- convenient and efficient
- more “controlled” than simple observation
Weakness: Sampling behavior w task (SBT)
Must be careful that measure is valid when participants are doing the study
Self reports
Participants’ answers to questions about topic of interest
Ex. Questionnaires, interviews
Strengths: Self-report
- convenient
- direct measurement of topic of interest by answering direct questions
Weaknesses: Self-repot
- answers may not be accurate:
• relying on memory
• lack of awareness on own behavior
• response bias
Response bias
Giving “socially acceptable” answers rather than the truth
Physiological measures
Measuring physiological response to stimuli
Ex. Lie detector test
Strength: Physiological measures
Provides conveying evidence that confirms behavioral findings
Weakness: Physiological measures
Not practical/available for all areas of study
Research measurements (4)
- Systemic observation
- Sampling behavior w task (SBT)
- Self reports
- Physiological measures
Reliable experiment result
Will the result hold up over time
- test/ retest
- inter-rater
Valid
Are the results genuine
- internal/external validity
Representative sampling
Using participants that accurately reflect the pop of interest
Population
Broad group of interest
Sample
Subset of pop
Research design
Conceptual approach to the study
- outline of how investigation will take place
Research design types (2)
(Studies)
- Correlational
- Experimental
Correlational study
Examines the relationship bt variables w/o manipulating them
Strengths: Correlational study
- convenient
- behavior is measured bt 2 things as it naturally occurs
Weakness: Correlational study
Correlational DOES NOT equal causation
Experimental study
Researcher randomly assigns participants to diff groups to asses the impact of the dependent variable
Strength: Experimental study
only way to assess causality
Weakness: Experimental study
Sometimes isn’t possible to do given the research question
Age-related changes studies/designs (3)
- Longitudinal
- Cross-sectional
- Longitudinal-sequential
Longitudinal
The same individuals are observed/tested repeatedly at diff points in their lives
Strengths: longitudinal
most direct way to watch growth occur over time
- only way to answer growth continuity
Weaknesses: longitudinal
- takes a lot of time and resources- not always practical
- cohort and practice effects
- selective attrition
Selective attrition
Certain participants drop out over time
- affects data outcome
Cross-sectional design
DIFF groups of participants are tested at the same developmental points of interest
- same point in time
Strengths: CSD
- convenient
- solves issues w longitudinal studies (cohort and practice effects)
Weakness: CSD
Doesn’t tell about continuity development
Longitudinal-sequential design
Sequence of samples, each tested longitudinally
Ex. 3 groups of participants tested at 3 points in time
Strengths: LSD
- provides info about continuity
- attenuates risk of practice and cohort effects
• comparing groups at same age at diff times
Weaknesses: LSD
- not as much continuity as pure longitudinal design
- more time consuming than pure cross-sectional
Chromosomes
- 23 pairs = 46 total
- first 22 pairs: autosomes - carry same genes
Last pair: sex chromosome
Gene
Each group of nucleotide bases that provides a specific set of biochemical instructions
Genotype
Complete set of genes making up a person’s heredity
Phenotype
An individual’s physical, behavioral, and psychological features
- gene outcome
- created by both genetic features and environmental influences
Dominant allele (B)
Chemical instructions that are typically followed
Ex. Brown eyes
Recessive allele (b)
When paired w a dominant allele (B), instructions are ignored
Ex. Blue eyes
Homozygous
Alleles in a pair of chromosomes are the same
(BB,bb)
Heterozygous
Alleles in a pair of chromosomes are different
(Bb)
- dominant allele “wins”
Incomplete dominance
When one allele doesn’t dominate the other completely, the phenotype that results fall bt dominant and recessive
Ex. Sickle cell disease
Genetic disorders (2)
- Inherited disorders
- Abnormal number of chromosomes
Inherited disorders
Genetic problem caused by abnormalities in the gene
- usually from the presence of 2 recessive alleles
Ex. Cystic fibrosis, PKU, Tay-sachs, sickle cell anemia
Abnormal numbers of chromosomes
Developmental disruptions occur when children are born with missing, extra, or damaged chromosomes
Single gene inheritance
Phenotypes that rely on the makeup of a single gene
Ex. Sickle cell anemia
Polygenic inheritance
Phenotypes that reflect the combined activity of many separate genes
Ex. Eye color, skin color
genotype-> phenotype
only if environment cooperates in usual manner
- environment changes can lead to lack of phenotype or trigger a genetic expression
epigenesis
study of changes in organisms caused by gene expression modifications
niche-picking
deliberately seeking out environments that fit one’s heredity
heritability coefficient
estimates the extent to which differences bt ppl reflect heredity
- only applies to specific groups living in a specific environment
behavior genetics
determining the impact of heredity on behavioral and psychological traits
- comparing groups of ppl who are known to differ in their genetic similarity
prenatal development
the changes that transform a fertilized egg into a newborn
-38 weeks
prenatal stages (3)
- zygote (weeks 1-2)
- embryo (weeks 3-8)
- fetus (weeks 9-38)
zygote period
growth and movement from fallopian tube to uterus
zygote
fertilized egg (days 1-2)
- within hours, the cell begins to divide at a rapid pace prompting birth
blastocyst
zygote resembles a hollow ball consisting of 100-200 cells (days 3-4)
inner layer: embryo
outer layer: placenta, umbilical cord, amniotic sac
zygote implantation (final stage)
blastocyst burrows into the uterine wall and est connection w mother’s blood vessels (days 7-14)
- sends hormonal signals to prevent mensuration
Embryo
Once blastocyst is fully embedded in uterine wall
Placenta
Organ that connects the amniotic sac, where the embryo rests, to uterus
Risk factors
Maternal (3)
Environmental (1)
maternal:
- Nutrition
- Stress
- Maternal age
Environmental:
- teratogen
Teratogen
Any environmental agent that causes birth defects
Ex alcohol
Genetic disorders (2)
- amniocentesis
- chronic villus sampling
Anmiocentesis
Needle inserted thru mother’s abdomen to obtain an amniotic fluid sample
Chronic villus sampling (CVS)
Tissue sample is obtained from Chorion (part of placenta)
stage 1 goal
Cervix enlarges (dilates) to 10 cm
- Typically reported as the most painful part of pregnancy
stage 1 how
Contractions activated through hormonal pathways
- Start: weak and irregular
- End: intense, sometimes without interruption
stage 2 goal
Baby moves through the birth canal and out of woman’s body
stage 2 how
Pushing + Uterus contractions move the baby out
- Women feel the strong urge to “push”—they begin to use their abdominal muscles
crowning
baby’s head becomes visible
Breech Presentation
when the baby moves down the birth canal feet or bottom first
afterbirth goal (stage 3)
Placenta and fetal membranes need to be expelled from the uterus
afterbirth how (stage 3)
Small contractions will start again (signaled by hormones) as placenta detaches from uterus
Baby blues
Range of neg emotions that typically last 1-2 weeks post birth
- adjusting to newborn’s demands
Postpartum depression
Mood disorder that lasts longer than baby blues and is more severe
newborn states (4)
- alert inactivity
- waking inactivity
- crying
- sleeping
Basic cry
Starts softly then gradually becomes more intense
- hunger or tired
Mad cry
More intense version of basic cry
Pain cry
Sudden long burst of crying followed by long pause and gasping
Reflexes
Organized inborn behaviors that occur in response to stimulation
6:
- rooting
- sucking
- stepping
- babinski
- grasping
- moro
rooting
newborn automatically turns their face toward a stimulus when their cheek or lip is touched.
- Birth-> 4 months (may last as long as 12 months)
- Believed to occur to aid in breastfeeding
sucking
when the roof of a baby’s mouth is touched it will begin to suck
- Develops between the 32nd and 36th week of pregnancy
- Replaced by voluntary sucking around 4 months
- Related to the rooting reflex
- Assists in feeding
stepping
baby appears to take steps or “dance” when held upright with his feet touching a solid surface
- Birth-> 2 months (depending on pace of weight gain)
- Assist in voluntary walking
Babinski
when the sole of the foot is stroked, the toes fan out and curl as the foot twists in.
Birth –> 12 months (considered “normal” up until 2 years)
- Signals low myelination of the corticospinal tract– therefore it is a sign of disorder if it does not switch to a “plantar reflex”
grasping
infant will spontaneously grasp an object pressed against their palm
- Birth -> 5 months
- Prepares for voluntary grasping
- Similar reflex is also present in the toes until 9-12 months
moro (“Startle Reflex”)
When startled by a loud noise or movement, the baby will throw his head back, extend his arms and legs, cry, and then pull arms and legs back in.
- Birth -> 6 months
- Helps to “shield” from danger
Cell types (2)
- neurons
- glial cells
Neurons
Cells specialized in receiving and transmitting info
Glial cells
Non-neural cells in CNS that nourish, repair, myelinate neurons
Cell body
Contains basic bio machinery that keeps the cells alive
Dendrite
Receiving end of neurons
Axon
Send info from receiving end (dendrite) to transmitting end
Myelin
Fat sheath surrounding the axon that allows transmission to happen more rapidly
Synapse
Gap bt 2 neurons
Terminal buttons
Release neurotransmitters to nearby neurons
Cerebral cortex
Regulates many of our “human” functions
Lobes (4)
- frontal: behavior, learning, personality, voluntary movement
— prefrontal cortex: executive reasoning and planning - parietal: spacial
- occipital: visual
- temporal: memory, visual recognition, emotion, auditory, speech
Neural plate
Group of cells that form a flat structure
- turns into neural tube
Brain dev stages (5)
- neurogenesis
- migration
- synaptogenesis
- synaptic pruning
- myelination
Neurogenesis
Cell production
- most neurons are created prenatally
Migration
Neurons move from neural tube to their final position in brain
Synaptogenesis
Neurons form connections w other neurons
- axon and dendrite grow longer and create new limbs - new synapses are formed
Exuberant synaptogenesis
An explosion of synapse formation that occurs early in brain dev
Synaptic pruning
Rarely used synapses are eliminated to make space for new connections
Myelination
Formation of the fatty sheath around axon
- MS: damaged myelin
