Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
Differences between seabirds and terrestrial birds:
A
longer lived
longer onset to sexual maturity
smaller clutch size
extended chick rearing period
colonial breeders
less colorful
sexually monomorphic
2
Q
countershading in seabirds
A
underbelly is much paler than back
3
Q
sexually monomorphic
A
no sign of differences between sexes
4
Q
life strategy for seabirds
A
few offspring and high parental investment
5
Q
challenges for seabirds in marine environments
A
saltwater intake
feed in water while still flying
harsh environments
ephermal environments (tides, seasons, extreme weather)
6
Q
how can you identify seabirds?
A
size and shape
plumage
bill features
flight patterns
7
Q
size as identification tool
A
need direct comparison
easier to compare wing spans and width in flight
focus on head and bill size
8
Q
shape as identification tool
A
focus on head and tail shape
9
Q
plumage as identification tool
A
obvious or subtle
can change with age (dark to light)
10
Q
flight patterns as identification tool
A
aggressiveness, arches, wingbeats
11
Q
jizz
A
used to describe the general impression of the bird
12
Q
orders
A
procellariiformes
sphenisciformes
pelecaniformes
charadriiformes
13
Q
sphenisiformes
A
penguins
14
Q
sphenisiformes morphology
A
flightless
flattened, mostly fused wing bones
bones not hollow
forelimbs modified into stiff flippers
densely covered with layers of short, stiff, undifferentiated feathers
layer of fat below skin
15
Q
procellariiformes
A
tube noses - albatrosses, shearwaters, storm petrel
16
Q
procellariiformes morphology
A
no crop in digestive tract, modified proventriculus
breed in colonies, lay a single egg
produce stomach oil
enhanced olfactory abilities
17
Q
families in procelariiformes
A
diomedeidae - albatrosses
procellariidae - fulmars, gadfly petrels, shearwaters, prions, larger petrels
pelecanoididae - diving petrels
hydrobatidea - stormfly petrels
18
Q
family diomedeidae (procellariiformes)
A
albatrosses
19
Q
family diomedeidae (procellariiformes) morphology
A
albatrosses
bred on isolated islands
large size, long, narrow wings
mostly in higher latitudes
left and right nasal tubes are separated
humerus can be locked in place for efficient gliding
travel largest distance than other species
distinct flying patterns, depend on glide and lift
20
Q
family procellariidae (procellariiformes)
A
fulmars, gadfly petrels, shearwaters, prions, larger petrels
21
Q
family procellariidae (procellariiformes) morphology
A
fulmars, gadfly petrels, shearwaters, prions, larger petrels
raised tubular nostrils on upper mandibles
22
Q
fulmars (family procellariidae)
A
heavy bodied, broad wings
high latitudes
often scavengers
23
Q
gadfly petrels (family procellariidae)
A
large group, less unified
medium sized, narrow bills, low wing loading
global distribution, breed at low latitudes
24
Q
prions (family procellariidae)
A
small (smallest in family)
broad bills with fringing lamellae
southern hemisphere
25
shearwaters (family procellariidae)
mid-sized
surface feeders or divers (follow marine mammals)
relatively heavy, flap frequently during flight
26
large petrels (family procellariidae)
occur in southern ocean
large bulky
27
family pelecanoididae (order procellariformes)
diving petrels
28
family pelecanoididae (order procellariformes) morphology
diving petrels
small, short winged
flanges attached to central septum, separating nostrils
feed almost exclusively underwater
southern hemisphere
no gliding flight, rapid wingbeats
swim underwater using half-closed wings as paddles
29
family hydrobatidae (order procellariformes)
storm petrels
30
family hydrobatidae (order procellariformes) morphology
storm petrels
smallest seabirds
nest in burrows or crevices
low wing loading
"walk on water"
31
speciation
formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution
32
mechanisms that lead to speciation
physical barriers
differences in ocean regimes
non-breeding distributions
foraging distributions
differences in timing of breeding
33
allopatric speciation
a parental species becomes subdivided by a geographic barrier to dispersal
34
founder effect
resulting loss of genetic variation when a new population is established by a small number of individuals from a larger population
35
peripatric speciation
similar to allopatric but one species population is much smaller with isolated reproduction of parental species range
36
parapatric speciation
reproductive semi-isolation in a small population on the periphery of the parental species range leads to speciation (parent species not completely separated - species spread over large geographic area)
37
sympatric speciation
reproductive isolation evolves in organisms that hare the same space (and time) - no physical barriers
38
cladogram
provides a map of traits adapted over evolutionary history
39
phylogeny
a hypothesis describing the evolutionary relationships of organisms to each other
40
order pelecaniformes
tropicbirds, pelicans, cormorants, boobies
41
order pelecaniformes morphology
completely webbed feet
no brood patch
gular skin pouch
external nostrils are enclosed or slit-like
salt gland completely enclosed in orbit
42
gular skin pouch
patch if skin located below lower mandible
43
orbit
eye socket
44
families in order pelecaniformes
phaethontidae - tropicbirds
pelecanidae - pelicans
fregatidae - frigate birds
sulidae - gannets and boobies
phalacrocoracidae - cormorans, shags, and anhingas
45
family phaethontidae morphology
pan-tropical distribution
long tail streamers as adults
plunge divers or surface feeders
46
family phaethontidae (order pelecaniformes)
tropicbirds
47
family pelecanidae morphology
extensible membrane in floor of lower mandible forms feeding "scoop"
feed by plunge diving or surface dipping
mostly warm-temperate and subtropical areas of northern hemisphere
48
family pelecanidae (order pelecaniformes)
pelicans
49
family fregatidea (order pelecaniformes)
frigate birds
50
family fregatidea morphology
sexual dimorphism
pan-tropical distribution
huge, broad wings
kleptoparasitic
never sit on or enter water (no waterproofing)
soar on thermals
51
family sulidae (order pelecaniformes)
gannets and boobies
52
family phaethontidae morphology
long, strong, tapering bills
bullet bodies
facial skin, eyes, bill, feet usually brightly colored
53
family phalacrocoracidae (order pelecaniformes)
cormorants, shags, anhingas
54
family phalacrocoracidae morphology
mostly black, long necks, short and broad wings
catch fish while swimming underwater (foot propelled)
pursuit divers
feed in coastal waters, lakes and rivers (benthic foragers)
semi-permeable feathers
wing-drying behavior
occipital crest for increasing force in lower mandible muscles
55
uropygial gland
located on based of tail
secretes oil that aids in waterproofing when spread on feathers
56
order charadriiformes
skuas, jaegers, gulls, terns, skimmers, auks
57
order charadriiformes families
stercorariidae - skuas and jaegers
laridae - gulls and terns
rhynchopidae - skimmers
alcidae - auks
58
family stercorariidae (order charadriiformes)
skuas and jaegers
59
family stercorariidae morphology
breed only in high latitudes
many are partial kelptoparasites
60
kleptoparasites
steal other birds' food
61
family laridae (order charadriiformes)
gulls and terns
62
family laridae - gull morphology
cosmopolitan
coastal nad inlands distributions
mid-sized
scavenger/predator
easily adaptable (generalists)
63
family laridae - tern morphology
coastal areas, rivers, wetlands, pelagic
small to medium birds - very aerodynamic
forked tail
breed on coastal islands (barrier islands) or beaches
64
family rhynchopidae (order charadriiformes)
skimmers
65
family rhynchopidae morphology
tropical and neotropical species
uneven bills, lower mandible longer than upper
3 species: black, african, indian skimmer
66
family alcidae (order charadriiformes)
auks
67
family alcidae characteristics
wing-propelled pursuit divers
occur in cool waters of northern hemisphere
compact body, short wings and tail
long bones and breast bone not hollow
most fish-eating (Some planktivorous occur in pacific)
specialist species - very vulnerable to climate change
68
convergent evolution
process whereby organisms that are not closely related independently evolve similar traits as a result of having to adapt to similar environments or ecological niches
69
analogous traits
similar characteristics that evolved independently per convergent evolution (commonly due to sharing of a common environment)
70
homologous traits
due to sharing a common ancestor, not necessarily a common function
71
aerofoil
structure with curved surface one one side and tapered on other meant for efficient flying (best ratio of lift and drag)
72
lift
force that gets bird off ground and keeps it in air and produced by aerofoil created by feathers and skeleton of forelimb
73
drag
reduces lift by slowing air moving over wing (alignment of flight feathers can influence drag)
74
morphological adaptations to flight
bones
flight muscles
efficient bodily systems
feathers
75
hollow bones
air pockets within bones for lightness and criss cross struts throughout bone for structural integrity
76
fused bone
aid in rigidity (wing tips, wishbone/thorax/furcula, pelvis)
77
keel bone
very strong, where flight muscles are attached
78
alula
freely movable digit with a few small feathers attached for changing the amount of air flowing over feathers to influence drag (helps landing)
79
supracoracoideus muscle
one of two flight muscles
attached to top of humerus
helps raise wings
80
pectoralis muscle
one of two flight muscles
attached to bottom of humerus
power stroke
81
crop
storage area so birds can wait until specific time where energy consumption is less prioritized
82
gizzard
grinds food and breaks it down (physical breakdown)
83
proventriculus
stomach
chemical break down of food via enzymes
84
air sacs
inhales air even when breathing out due to unidirectional flow of air and allowing for high metabolic rates
85
air sacs oxygen order
inhale -> anterior air sacks -> lungs -> posterior air sacks -> exhale
86
circulatory system
4 chambered heart allows for separation between oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
87
why is the avian circulatory system more efficient?
the left ventricle exerts more pressure and allows for better blood flow to the body
88
right ventricle pumps to...
lungs
89
left ventricle pumps to...
body
90
function of flight feathers
control air flow over wing
91
function of contour feathers
streamline body
92
function of tail feathers
control direction and speed
93
wing loading
ratio of weight to wing area
94
which is more efficient for flight? high or low wing loading?
low wing loading, less exertion required of wings
95
aspect ratio
ratio of wing-span to its mean chord
96
high aspect ratio
wings are thin and tapered, allowing for lower drag and less influence of turbulence or wind on wings
97
types of flight
gliding
soaring
flapping
flap-gliding
hovering
subaqueous flying
98
gliding flight
use weight to overcome air resistance to forward motion (only large birds - requires specific mass)
99
how to gain altitude?
updrafts and thermals
100
thermals
form of updraft created by temp/pressure gradients from uneven heating of earth's surface
101
flapping flight
up and down movement of wings
102
proximal wing during flapping flight
moves less, provides more lift
103
distal wing during flapping flight
moves through a wide arc, generates the thrust that propels a bird forward
104
power strokes in flapping flight
wings move downward and forward resulting in the leading edge of the wing being lower than the trailing edge and producing a angled forward resultant force that causes forward thrust
105
recovery stroke of flapping flight
tips of primaries separate and slots allow passage of air through them, reducing friction, and the wing is partially folded towards body to reduce drag
106
slope soaring
obstruction of wind creates pocket of rising air to provide enough lift for gliders to stay airborne for long periods
107
wave lift
waves can serve as obstruction and can create downdraft
108
dynamic soaring cycle
1. windward climb
2. a curve; turn to go with the wind
3. a leeward descent
4. a curve; turn into the wind
109
coriolis effect
results in albatrosses to fly in anti-clockwise loops flying north and clockwise loops when flying south
110
types of underwater locomotion
swimming on surface
plunge diving
pursuit diving (foot and wing propulsion)
111
challenges of swimming
higher viscosity
higher density
buoyancy in birds
112
locomotion
how to move in/above water
113
morphology
shape and structure
114
physiology
function and internal processes
115
challenges to ocean living
moving above water and in water
maintaining water and salt balance
diving: storage and consumption of oxygen
waterproofing of feathers
regulating body temperature
116
homeostasis
regulating internal environments to maintain a stable, constant condition of properties
117
osmosis
process of water moving passively in and out of cells
118
osmotic homeostasis
maintaining water-ion balance within physiologically viable range
119
osmoconformer
osmolarity of body fluids is equal to the external environment
120
osmoregulator
an organism that can regulate the solutes or salts of its body fluid at a higher or lower concentration than the external medium
121
isoosmotic
osmolarity inside = outside
122
hypoosmotic
osmolarity outside > inside
123
hyperosmotic
osmolarity inside > outside
124
seabirds are... (osmosis)
hypoosmotic
125
inputs of water and ions
drinking water
food
oxidative metabolism
126
how to minimize intake of saltwater?
filter water out of mouth before ingestion
prey selection (teleost fish less salty than cartilaginous)
fattier food produces more water via metabolism
127
outputs of water
evaporation
respiration
evapotranspiration of mouth
128
how to minimize water loss
reabsorption of water through intestine
kidneys remove waste including excess water and ions
concentrated waste product
129
how to cope with salinity
regulate rate of urine filtration
reduce rate of glomerular filtration during water scarcity
130
kidneys in seabirds are more efficient in water retention than mammalian kidneys because...
mammals excrete urea, containing ammonia, which is toxic and must be diluted but seabirds excrete uric acid
131
salt glands are located?
above the orbit
132
salt glands function
secrete NaCl solution more concentrated than seawater
salt is pushed from lower intestine, to kidney, to salt gland and then excreted through nostril or roof of mouth
133
variableness in salt glands
location differs in species
concentration of solution
size of salt gland
134
how to move efficiently underwater?
reduce viscous drag, pressure drag, and wave drag
135
boundary layer
thin layer of fluid whose velocity is affected by the body surface (fluid in boundary layer does not move relative to body surface)
136
viscous drag
occurs due to friction of the fluid against the body surface
137
wave drag
kinetic energy transformed into potential energy in waves (reaches a maximum at a depth of 0.5 body diameter)
138
pressure drag
occurs due to distribution of pressure moving around a body, effects on fluid flow
139
morphological adaptations to diving
streamlined body shape
bones are not hollow
webbing of feet
dense, specialized feathers
stiff, flattened paddle-like wings
140
increase in body size results in _____ in dive duration
increase
141
adaptations for oxygen conservation during diving
increased oxygen storage capacity
bradycardia
peripheral ischemia
efficient ventilation patterns
142
bradycardia
slowing of heart rate
143
peripheral ischemia
reduce blood flow to extremities
144
how to avoid the bends?
take short, shallow dives
severe bradycardia - reduction in cardiac output
pressure induced restriction of gas exchange
thickened blood-air barriers
air volume for passive ascent
prolonged ascent, oblique ascending angle
145
the bends
can't acclimate to pressure differences, resulting in build up of harmful gasses
146
oxygen stores in lungs
air
147
oxygen stores in blood
hemoglobin
148
oxygen stores in muscles
myoglobin
149
aerobic dive limit
maximum breath hold without an increase in blood lactic acid concentration during or after the dive
150
aerobic dive limit depends on
stored oxygen reserves
oxygen consumption rate
degree of peripheral ischemia
rate of lactic acid production and consumption
151
air lubrication
injection of air into boundary layer to gain enough speed to jump out of water (through moving feathers around to influence how much air is trapped)
152
homeothermy
maintenance of a constant body temperature, usually warmer than that of the environment (body temp maintained within narrow range)
153
endothermy
use of elevated metabolism in response to body cooling to maintain homeothermy
154
ectothermy
reliance on external sources of hear to maintain elevated body temp
155
poikilothermy
failure to regulate body temp and conformance to environmental temperature (body temp fluctuates within wide range)
156
heterothermy
faciultative reduction in body temp by an endothermic animal
157
facultative endothermy
increase in body temp of an ectothermic animal by means of some physiological process
158
what are seabirds? (thermoregulation)
endotherms
159
thermoneutral zone
range of temperatures where heat loss is balanced by production
160
thermoneutral zone bounded by...
upper critical temperature and lower critical temperature
161
conductive heat loss formula
H = SA * C (Tb - Ta)
H = conductive heat loss
SA = surface area
C = thermal conductance
Tb = body temp
Ta = ambient temp
162
large objects = ____ SA:Volume = _____ heat retention
small; large
163
how to reduce heat loss
large body size
reduction in surface area to volume ratio
feathers
decreased thermal conductance of integument
metabolic rate
164
integument
outer surface of body
165
rachis
distal end of central shaft of feather
solid
area to which vanes are attatched
166
calamus
part of the shaft closest to bird's body
hollow, without any vanes
167
down feathers
rachis is missing, barbules lack hooks
168
how do feathers trap air?
each vane contains hooks and barbs that allow air to come close to the body but prevents it from leaving, creating air pockets
169
altricial chicks
do not have down
170
precocial chicks
have down
171
brood patch
region of the body that does not have feathers and is heavily vascularized, facilitation heat transfer to eggs during incubation
172
types of insulation
tissues (fat deposits)
feather
173
which insulation contributes more?
feathers
174
how do feathers keep birds warm?
down at bottom of shaft
feathers flatten in water to keep down dry
dark plumage absorbs heat on land
high feather density
175
how are penguin feathers specialized for insulation?
feathers erect on land to trap air
short, stiff, overlapping
pressed more closely together by strong winds, rather than apart
176
how do oil spills affect thermoregulatory ability?
oil adheres to feathers, disrupting water-repellant properties
must increase metabolic heat production, susceptible to hypothermia in cold waters
177
regional heterothermy
can maintain different temperature zones in different regions of the body
178
peripheral vasoconstriction
constriction of blood vessels
179
counter-current heat exchangers
warm arterial blood from core transfer heat to adjacent cool venous blood
180
how to conserver heat via regional heterothermy?
peripheral vasoconstriction
counter-current heat exchangers
nasal passages
dark plumage
181
nasal passages
water condenses on walls during exhalation
182
birds in cold conditions
restrict blood flow to appendages
use counter current hear exchange
heat remains in body
183
how are temperate penguins different than high latitude penguins?
more exposed areas
shorter feathers, less fat
typically smaller
184
behavioral means of conserving heat
constant movement
basking
reduce surface area exposed to cold
form tortues
185
tortues
huddles
186
birds in hot conditions
let off heat
dilate blood vessels
bring heat from within body to surface (legs and feet)
187
behavioral heat dissipation
seek shade
hold wings away from body
change posture and position to increase SA:V
gular fluttering and panting
188
how do penguins cool down?
burrows
nocturnal behavior
rotate to face sun (reduce dark plumage exposure)
189
homeothermy advantages
can live in cool environments
tolerant of most ocean systems
increased metabolic control
fast growth
higher activity rates
food digestion faster
faster healing
190
homeothermy disadvantages
larger food requirements
lower habitat carrying capacity
lower efficiency in food use
