Exam 1 Flashcards
change in organic structures over time
evolution
the phenotypic range of a genotype influenced by the environment
norm of reaction
traits that are sensitive to environmental variations
facultative traits
traits that are likely in a typical environment (e.g., having a nose)
obligate traits
- How did the behavior develop?
- What was the physiological cause?
- How did the behavior evolve?
- What’s the behavior’s function?
Tinbergen’s 4 Questions
a causal explanation of behavior that focuses on immediate situational and physiological factors
proximate explanation of behavior
evolutionary advantage of the behavior
ultimate explanations for behavior
Brown’s description of behavior that is common to all human cultures
- social
- rank and status
- rules of etiquette
- communicate verbally and non-verbally
- facial expressions
- religion and beliefs
universal people
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased survival will most likely be passed on to succeding generations
natural selection
within any species, there are differences between the population
variation
genes are passed down to our offspring
inheritance
can happen with environmental pressures
- also happens with mating
selection
psychological mechanisms that aided in our survival and therefore got passed on
evolved psychological mechanism
the adaptive problem it evolved to solve
function
theory of the human mind in which the various components of cognition are characterized as independent modules, each with its own specific domain and particular properties
modularity
the issues that ancestors had to successfully deal with in order to survive and reproduce
adaptive problems
tells the organism the particular adaptive problem it is facing
input
physiological activity, information about other psychological mechanisms, or manifest behavior; solution to a particular adaptive problem
output
a trait that helps an organism survive and reproduce
adaptation
the evolutionary process also produces things that are not adaptations
byproducts
effects produced by change mutations, sudden shifts in the environment, etc.
random effects of noise
the period when all humans were hunter-gatherers of wild resources, many of our adaptations are designed for this environment
- the statistical composite of selection pressures that occurred during an adaptation’s period of evolution responsible for producing the adaptation
Environmental Evolutionary Adaptedness (EEA)
- Theory of Parasite-Host Coevolution
- Theory of Parental Investment and Sexual Selection
- Theory of reciprocal altruism
Middle-Level Evolutionary Theories
Hypothesis 1: In species in which the sexes differ in parents’ investment, the higher investing sex will be more selective in the choice of mating partners
Hypothesis 2: Where males sometimes contribute resources to offspring, females will select mates in part based on their ability and willingness to contribute resources
Hypothesis 3: Members of the sex that invest less parentally in offspring will be more competitive with each other for mating access to the high-investing sex
Specific Evolutionary Hypotheses
Prediction 1: Women evolved preferences for, and attraction to, men who are high in status
Prediction 2: Women have evolved preferences for men who show cues indicating a willingness to invest in them and their children
Prediction 3: Women will divorce men who fail to contribute expected resources if they can do better on the “mating market”
Specific predictions derived from hypotheses
Theory driven
- Step 1: derive hypothesis from existing theory
- Step 2: test predictions based on hypothesis
- Step 3: evaluate whether empirical results confirm predictions
Top-down strategy
- Step 1: Develop hypothesis about adaptive function based on a known observation
- Step 2: test predictions based on hypothesis
- Step 3: Evaluate whether empirical results confirm predictions
Bottom-up strategy
Augustinian monk and botanist whose experiments in breeding garden peas led to his eventual recognition as founder of the science of genetics
Gregor Mendel
demonstrated that inherited characteristics are carried by genes, dominant and recessive
Mendel’s contribution
the process by which sections of DNA switch from one chromosome to another during meiosis, further increasing genetic variability
Crossing over
changes in sections of DNA caused by random or environmental factors
mutations
the shuffling of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in the sperms cell
random assortment
source of genetic variation caused by the unlimited number of possible sperm and egg combinations
random fertilization
traits that are affected by genes at a single loci; you either have it or you don’t
- e.g., eye color, widows peak, Huntington’s disease
discrete traits
affected by genes at many loci; multiple locations/gene contributions
- e.g., height, eye shade, hair pattern
polygenic traits
the alternate allele may produce equally ‘fit’ phenotypes
selectively neutral
causes selective reversals
- e.g., moths surviving the industrial revolution
environmental variation
sickle-cell anemia: heterozygote trait doesn’t get sickle cell but is protected against malaria, so the traits continue to get passed down
heterozygote superiority
selection in which the fitness of a phenotype depends on how common the phenotype is in a population
- e.g., scorpionfly stealing mating gift
frequency-dependent selection
gene-copying errors
mutation
refers to the process of basic information from the external world by the sensory receptors in the sense organs and brain
sensation
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information about the objects, events, and spatial layout of our surrounding world
perception
innate, fixed patterns of action that occur in response to particular stimulation
reflexes
enables us to see geometric properties of objects over long distances, use to move around the world
vision
cannot see fine details, more useful in motion
limits of vision
vibrations ‘heard’ through the air, water, and sometimes solids
- useful in the dark, help us to avoid predators and take care of our offspring
hearing
smell: distance and contact sense; pheromones
taste: contact taste
chemical sense
warm, cold, pressure, itch, tickle, PAIN
- critical for survival
touch
the response to stimulus depends on both the person’s sensitivity to the stimulus in the presence of noise and on a person’s response criterion
signal detection theory
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
sensory adaptation
- consciousness as wakefulness
- consciousness as voluntary action
- consciousness as awareness
three ways of looking at consciousness
memory, learning, metabolic regularity, ability to function properly
reasons for sleep
falling asleep; the stage between awake and sleep
hypnagogic state
waking up; the stage between sleep and awake
hypnopompic stage
the surface, “visible” content of a dream; dream images as they are remembered by the dreamer
manifest dream content
the hidden/symbolic meaning of a dream, as revealed by dream interpretation and analysis
latent dream content
dreams are influenced by the consolidation of memories during sleep
consolidation
dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry
activation-synthesis theory
problem with feature detection theory regarding how all different aspects of feature detection are assembled together and related to a single object; solved by visual attention
the binding problem
realizing that you and your actions have consequences for both you and those around you
aspects of self-awareness
our beliefs help to shape our consciousness and brain activity
- meditation: the practice of intentional contemplation
- religious prayer
- imagination
- creativity
- other altered states
beliefs and consciousness
