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BBH 432 - Stress > Exam #1 > Flashcards

Exam #1 Flashcards

1
Q

The stress response is ___________

A

adaptive
- can be beneficial; helps organisms adapt

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2
Q

Physiological responses are _________________

A

interconnected
- combination of responses that all affect one another; complex

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3
Q

acute vs. chronic stress

A

both will have different outcomes

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4
Q

What factors affect stress?

A

environmental & perceptual factors
- things from outside AND inside affect stress

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5
Q

____________ differences exist

A

individual
- e.g. sex differences

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6
Q

Stress

A

very vague term
- e.g. environmental condition, human response, emotion, etc.

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7
Q

Stressor

A

challenging stimulus that causes stress response

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8
Q

Stress Response

A

physiological/behavioral/cognitive/emotional response to stressor(s)

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9
Q

Taylor’s definition of stress

A
  • negative emotional experience
  • accompanied by a physiological response
  • physiology helps respond to stressor
    OUTDATED
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10
Q

Lazarus & Folkman definition of stress

A

Mismatch between personal resources and environmental demands
- e.g. a lot to get done with few resources

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11
Q

Stressor characteristics that affect response

A
  1. frequency, intensity, duration
  2. positive/negative consequences
  3. controllability
  4. relevance to life goals
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12
Q

Perceptual characteristics that affect response

A
  1. anticipation, perseveration
  2. sense of control (real or imaginary; YOUR sense of control)
  3. appraisal (harmful, threatening, challenging)
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13
Q

3 Major Physiological Systems

A
  1. Sympathetic Nervous System
  2. Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal Axis
  3. Immune system
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14
Q

Sympathetic Nervous System

A
  • involves catecholamines (e.g. adrenaline)
  • heart rate/blood pressure increase
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15
Q

Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal Axis

A
  • involves hypothalamus, pituitary, and adrenals (above kidneys; cortisol)
  • hypothalamus gets input from higher brain areas
  • CNS -> PNS
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16
Q

Immune System

A
  • complex system of cells to attack non-self (bacteria, viruses, etc.)
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17
Q

Nervous system <—–> Immune system

A
  • (NS): noradrenergic innervation affects antibody production
  • (IS): products affect brain activity
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18
Q

Nervous system <——> Endocrine system (HPA)

A
  • (NS): perception of threat leads to release of cortisol
  • (ES): thyroid hormones are necessary for development of nervous system
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19
Q

Endocrine system (HPA) <——> Immune system

A
  • (ES): cortisol release inhibits responses
  • (IS): immune system products modulate endocrine responses to infection
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20
Q

Function of physiological stress response

A
  • generic ‘emergency response:’
    -> useful for both threats and opportunities
    -> ‘umbrella system’ - activation of multiple systems
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21
Q

stress response - short-term energy

A
  • increase short-term energy availability
    -> increased oxygen
    -> increased glucose availability
    -> increased circulation and blood shunted to muscles
    -> increased cooling (sweat)
    -> increased cognitive attention and acuity
    (- decrease inessential functions (digestion, sex))
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22
Q

Evolution of stress response

A
  • natural selection favors traits that are adaptive
    -> stress response is important for basic survival
  • strong selection pressure for a generic ‘emergency response’ system (highly conserved across species)
  • selection for complex regulation - to minimize costs
  • selection of stress physiology occurred generations ago, under different environments
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23
Q

Engineering Analogy of Stress

A
  • used in 1600’s
  • considered the body to be a “machine”
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24
Q

Hooke’s Law of Elasticity

A
  • related to engineering analogy of stress
    a. ‘LOAD’ - external demand (~stressor)
    b. ‘STRESS’ - specific area affected (~stress response)
    c. ‘STRAIN’ - shape changed (~allostasis/allostatic load)
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25
Q

Mind-Body Connection

A
  • late 1800’s
  • nervous energy can affect health - no obvious organic cause (e.g. fatigue/anxiety without ‘pathology,’ hysteria, neurasthenia)
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26
Q

Psychosomatic Medicine

A
  • 1900’s
  • mind and body are ONE
  • health = psychological and somatic
  • focused on how thoughts, cognitions, and emotions potentially affect your biology and stress
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27
Q

Homeostasis

A
  • Claude Bernard (late 1800’s)
    -> physician (M.D.) - physiologist
  • internal environment must remain constant (steady state) while external environment changes
  • external disruptors to internal steady state
  • stress response is to keep us at homeostatic setpoint
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28
Q

Emotions, Homeostasis, and Health

A

Walter Cannon (early 1900’s)
-> experimental physiologist (M.D.)
-> specialized in GI tract, emotions, and hormones
- built on Bernard’s homeostasis
-> goal of body: maintain stable internal environment
-> STRESS RESPONSE: return body to ideal setpoint
- hormonal responses help organisms respond to emergencies
-> hormones travel in blood - affect many organs simultaneously
-> Cannon realized that the stress response has to include a hormonal signal
- Patients’ emotions are important
-> internal disruptors of steady state

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29
Q

Sample Cannon Experiment

A
  • animals exposed to stimuli that prompted an emotional response (e.g. cat sees dog = fear)
    -> take blood samples
    -> drop of blood on a muscle strip collected from another animal
    -> the muscle was attached to coils that measured contraction of muscle
  • Adrenaline/epinephrine = muscle contraction
    -> amount of contraction may indicate amount of adrenaline present
  • RESULT: epinephrine response to emotional stressor
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30
Q

General Adaptation Syndrome

A

Hans Selye (1900’s)
- medical doctor (M.D./Ph.D.) - endocrinologist
-> specialized in sex hormones (ovaries), adrenal glands, pancreas

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31
Q

Suite of physiological responses

A

General Adaption Syndrome (Selye)
1. gastrointestinal ulcers (SNS)
2. adrenal enlargements (HPA)
3. thymic and lymphatic involution/shrinking (immune)
-> if Selye saw one response, he saw ALL three (known as a triad/SYNDROME)
- non-specific response - different stressors, same response

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32
Q

Timeline of responses

A

General Adaptation Syndrome (Selye)
A. Alarm - activation of response
B. Resistance - plateau/maintenance
C. Exhaustion - wear & tear

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33
Q

How could Selye have performed the experiment better?

A
  • He was essentially poisoning the animals with hormones on the side that created the generic response
  • Should have used a control and injected the chemicals he used in the formula (this would have shown him that the formula was the problem)
  • formalin
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34
Q

Richard Lazarus (late 1900’s)

A
  • psychologist (Ph.D.) - cognition/emotions
  • stressor appraisal affects ability to cope
    -> demands vs. resources
35
Q

Allostasis

A

Sterling & Eyer (1988)
- psychologists
- build on homeostasis concept
- ‘set-point’ can change to adapt to demands:
-> e.g. repeated stress -> blunted stress response (adaptation)

36
Q

Allostatic Load

A

McEwen & Stellar (1993)
- neuroscientists/physiologist (Ph.D.)
- allostatic load
-> ALLOSTASIS: change set-points with conditions
-> LOAD: wear and tear on body from long-term allostasis (e.g. exhaustion)

37
Q

SNS

A
  • seconds
  • telephone analogy: specific communication connections
38
Q

HPA axis

A
  • minutes
  • radio analogy: general broadcast (in blood), receivers (on cells)
  • maintain energy and recover from sympathetic response
39
Q

Immune System

A
  • minutes -> days
  • telephone/radio analogy: specific connections and general broadcasting
40
Q

Vegetative Nervous System

A
  • “autopilot,” primitive
  • BRAIN STEM: involuntary actions (HR, breathing)
  • RETICULAR FORMATION: bridge brain and body
41
Q

Limbic Nervous System

A
  • emotions, homeostasis
  • THALAMUS: ‘central relay station’ – cortical input
  • HYPOTHALAMUS: ‘emotion control’ controls:
    -> appetite, body temp, pain/pleasure, threat response
  • PITUITARY GLAND: ‘master gland’ – controls other glands
    -> stimulated by hypothalamus
    -> stimulates other glands by releasing hormones into blood
  • NEOCORTEX: sensation, thought
    -> decode sensory info (e.g. threat vs. non-threat)
    -> highly developed in humans
    -> analysis, imagination, organization, creativity, intuition, logic, memory
    -> can override limbic and vegetative responses
42
Q

Peripheral Nervous System

A
  • separated into somatic and autonomic
43
Q

Somatic Nervous System

A
  • part of peripheral nervous system
  • voluntary actions
  • connects to skin and skeletal muscles
44
Q

Autonomic Nervous System

A
  • part of peripheral nervous system
  • primarily involuntary actions
    -> e.g. circulation, temp, regulation, digestion, respiration
  • connects to internal organs
  • activated by hypothalamus
  • balance of 2 systems: sympathetic/parasympathetic
45
Q

Sympathetic Autonomic Nervous System

A
  • fight or flight
  • rapid metabolic increase
  • catecholamine release:
    -> epinephrine/adrenaline
    -> norepinephrine/noradrenaline
46
Q

Parasympathetic Autonomic Nervous System

A
  • relaxation
  • energy conservation
  • decrease metabolic activity
  • acetylcholine release (important in memory formation)
47
Q

Sympathetic Nervous System

A
  • “fight or flight”
  • connects to every part of the body, unlike parasympathetic
48
Q

Causes of SNS

A
  • increased heartrate rate and vasoconstriction (increased blood pressure)
  • bronchodilation and increased respiratory rate (increased oxygen to skeletal muscles)
  • decreased salivation
  • peristalsis
  • pupil dilation
  • piloerection (hairs on end)
49
Q

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A
  • “rest and digest”
  • PROACTIVE ENERGY CONSERVATION: aids in digestion, supports restorative and resting processes
50
Q

Causes of PNS

A
  • decreased heart rate
  • vasodilation (decreased blood pressure)
  • increased salivation
  • increased gastrointestinal tract tone and peristalsis
  • pupil constriction
51
Q

Steps in CNS stress pathway

A

THALAMUS -> AMYGDALA -> HYPOTHALAMUS -> PITUITARY -> HIPPOCAMPUS -> ADRENAL

52
Q

Thalamus

A
  • center of brain
  • amplifies signals from cortex
  • integrates sensory information
53
Q

Amygdala

A
  • important for threat perception/fear
  • if damaged, fail to recognize danger
  • amygdala activity stimulates hypothalamus
54
Q

Hypothalamus

A
  • center for fight-or-flight reaction
  • links nervous system to endocrine system
55
Q

Pituitary

A
  • ‘master gland’
  • orchestrates important physiological responses:
    -> stress
    -> growth
    -> reproduction
    -> lactation
    -> immune system
56
Q

Hippocampus

A
  • highly plastic throughout life – new neurons
  • helps store memories of threatening stimuli
  • involved in HPA axis regulation
    -> contains many glucocorticoid receptors
  • modulated by amygdala
57
Q

Adrenal Gland

A

ADRENAL MEDULLA (internal portion): major organ of SNS
- cortisol is produced in CORTEX (endocrine)
- sympathetic neurons synapse in medulla
- sympathetic activation causes release of epinephrine and norepinephrine into circulation
- Epi and NE bind adrenergic receptors on cells – change cellular function
- Epi and NE can be neurotransmitters in synaptic cleft AND hormones in bloodstream

58
Q

endocrine system primer

A
  • Cascade of secretion responses: brain -> peripheral glands
    1. HYPOTHALAMUS
  • secrets releasing factors
  • stimulates pituitary
    2. PITUITARY
  • secretes intermediate hormones
  • stimulates peripheral glands
    -> e.g. adrenals, testes, ovaries
    3. Peripheral gland/organ
  • secretes final hormone
    -> e.g. cortisol, testosterone, estrogen
    4. Final Hormone
  • travels in blood (released from gland)
  • binds cells with specific receptor
  • alters cell metabolism and gene transcription
    5. Negative Feedback - the off switch
  • receptors for final hormone on hypothalamic and pituitary cells
  • decrease releasing factor and intermediate hormone release
    -> may not always work correctly
59
Q

proteins

A
  • type of hormone
  • large, lipid-insoluble
  • cannot enter cells
  • alters cell function
  • relatively fast
60
Q

steroids

A
  • type of hormone
  • small, lipid-soluble
  • traverses membrane
  • alters gene transcription
    -> binds to receptor inside cell
  • relatively slow
61
Q

Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal Axis

A
  • hypothalamus stimulates pituitary with release of CRH
  • pituitary releases ACTH into general circulation
  • ACTH stimulates adrenal cortex
  • adrenal cortex releases cortisol
    -> cortisol has “negative” influence on hypothalamus
    –> negative feedback
62
Q

HPA cascade

A
  • CRH (1-2 s.) -> ACTH (~15 s.) -> Cortisol (1-2 min)
    1. hypothalamus
  • releases corticotropin-releasing factor
    2. Anterior pituitary
  • releases adrenocorticotropin hormone
    3. Adrenal cortex
  • releases glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid hormone
    4. Feedback
  • GC binds glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptors in hypothalamus and pituitary
  • decreased CRH/ACTH production
  • decr
63
Q

Hypothalamus

A
  • input from many brain regions
  • regulates motivated behavior
    -> e.g. feed, growth, sex
  • CRH neurons in paraventricular nucleus
    -> release CRH to basal hypothalamus and pituitary portal circulation
    -> stimulate vasopressin and oxytocin release in posterior pituitary
  • governs pituitary gland with 2 mechanisms:
    -> hypothalamic hormones to anterior pituitary
    -> hypothalamic neurons to posterior pituitary
64
Q

Anterior pituitary

A
  • contains hormone-producing cells
  • releasing hormones from hypothalamic neurons
  • cells release tropic hormones
65
Q

Posterior pituitary

A
  • contains blood vessels (capillaries)
  • spread peptide hormones from hypothalamic neurons
  • not a true gland; doesn’t have cells to produce hormones
  • releases vasopressin/oxytocin
66
Q

Adrenal cortex

A
  • glucocorticoids (‘stress’)
    -> break down proteins
    -> increases blood sugar
  • mineralocorticoids (salt/water balance)
    -> sodium/water absorption
    -> potassium production
67
Q

Adrenal medulla

A
  • epinephrine & norepinephrine
    -> stimulates heart, lungs, blood vessels
68
Q

glucocorticoid receptors

A
  • low affinity
    -> i.e. need high GC concentration to see significant binding
  • widely distributed in brains
    -> including cortex, hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus
  • regulates negative feedback during stress response
69
Q

mineralocorticoid receptors

A
  • high affinity (only need low levels of GC)
  • concentrated in hippocampus, hypothalamus, and amygdala
  • regulates tonic GC production/signaling
70
Q

Kinds of immune function

A
  • innate immunity
  • cell-mediated
  • humoral
71
Q

innate immunity

A
  • first response (minutes)
  • non-specific - attack ALL antigens
  • fever & inflammation
    -> fever: kill organisms (overheating)
    -> inflammation: send cells to injury
72
Q

cell-mediated immunity

A
  • second response (hours)
  • somewhat specialized
    -> if same antigen, there will be an accelerated response
  • cancer & intracellular antigens (e.g. viruses)
73
Q

humoral immunity

A
  • slowest response (days/weeks to peak)
  • specialized
  • cell proliferation: attacks specific antigen
  • produces antibodies
  • antigens in blood & lymph (e.g. bacteria & parasites)
74
Q

macrophages

A
  • ‘big & dumb’ [innate, cell-mediated]
  • large
  • engulf (eat) and dissolve antigens
  • generalists: attack many antigens (non-self)
  • present antigen parts to initiate more targeted response
75
Q

natural killer cells

A
  • ‘stealth’ [innate, cell-mediated]
  • patrol
  • attack & destroy many antigens
  • generalists: attack tumors & viruses
76
Q

lymphocytes

A
  • white blood cells [cell-mediated, humoral]
  • made in bone marrow
  • high-order immune responses
77
Q

Kinds of lymphocytes

A

T cells and B cells

78
Q

T cells

A
  • ‘middle-man’ [cell-mediated, humoral]
  • mature in thymus
  • specialists:
    -> orchestrate immune response
  • several kinds:
    T-helper/CD4+: stimulate B cells, macrophages, CD8+
    Cytotoxic/CD8+: patrol and attack infected and tumor cells
  • chemical communication:
    -> interleukins/cytokines: measured from blood
    -> interferons
79
Q

B cells

A
  • humoral
  • specialists:
    -> recognize one specific antigen
    -> produce antibodies to attach to antigen
    –> mark antigen for destruction by innate/cell-mediated
    MEMORY CELLS: recognize exact antigen for next exposure
  • used for secondary antibody response
  • VACCINES: stimulate B cells activity/learning:
    -> inject weak or dead antigens
    -> B-cell stimulate antibody production
    -> later infection - antibodies already exist
80
Q

autonomic nervous system

A
  • projects to immune organs (spleen & thymus)
  • circulating NE and Epi: increase proinflammatory cytokines
81
Q

immune cells

A
  • have glucocorticoid and NE/Epi receptors
82
Q

Inflammation

A
  • interleukins in brain cause hypersensitivity to pain
83
Q

Interleukin from T-cells

A
  • cause ‘illness behavior’ (fatigue, lethargy)

BBH 432 - Stress (1 decks)

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