exam 1 Flashcards
what are the two viewpoints defining deviant behavior?
1) the normative perspective
2) the situational perspective
what is the normative perspective?
sees deviance as behavior that violates generally accepted social norms
what is the situational perspective?
- shifts the focus to the social situation surrounding the behavior in question
- relativistic in nature (understands deviance primarily in terms of when and where it occurs)
- the societal response to any behavior dictates the extent of its deviance
what are conformist or non-deviant behaviors?
activities that are mutually acceptable to both (the normative and situational perspective) are the most obvious forms of conformist or non-deviant behaviors
what are extreme forms of conventional behavior?
- behaviors that are negatively defined socially but are consistent with the normative structure of society
- ex. working an insane amount of hours
crimes as a form of deviant behavior
- behaviors that do not adhere to the normative structure of society and are situationally condemned
- these behaviors are both deviant and condemned by statute or criminal law
What does it mean that the relationship between crime and deviance is not static?
- forms of behavior considered deviant in the past might be legal today as well as behaviors that are considered legal today might be criminalized in the future
social norms
those generally agreed upon guides (or normative expectations) for behavior that provide boundaries for interpersonal relations
social roles
defined by a set of social norms for the behavior of individuals who occupy given statuses within society
expectational norms
refer to behaviors that are ideal for individuals who are enacting a particular social role or who are ina given social situation
behavioral norms
refers to what people typically do when occupying a particular role or in a given situation
inherently deviant behavior vs social characteristics
- while some behaviors are considered inherently deviant, the definition of other behaviors depends on the social characteristics of the actor and the social context of the behavior
- ex. drinking alcohol at age 20 vs drinking alcohol at age 21
what is the situational approach’s three-step process?
- defining behaviors (inherently deviant, who defines deviance, situational deviance)
- labeling actors (who is doing the labeling, who is getting labeled, why do some get labeled and others don’t despite acting in similar ways)
- responding to the label attached to the actors
public condemnation
- if the behavior and actor are labeled deviant or criminal, the degree of public condemnation of the behavior, and the offenders can serve as an indicator of the severity of the deviant act
- increased condemnation = increased severity of deviance
societal reaction to the offense
- varies by the severity of the offense, the social characteristics of the victim and offender, and the social relationship between them along with other chracteristics
formal controls
- refers to the official sanctioning of certain norm violators
- typically agents of the CJS
informal controls
- refers to gossip, ridicule, exclusion from group activities and social groups, etc
William Graham’s classification of social norms
- folkways: everyday practices commonly observed within a given culture (expected to be followed)
- mores: norms that govern more important sociocultural behaviors (offensive to violate)
- laws: the most serious form of social norms, used to respond to criminal norm violations (distinguish btwn what is criminal and what is not criminal)
social dimensions of deviant and criminal behavior
- patterned or idiosyncratic
- positive or negative
- innovative or routine
- individual or group
- episodic or chronic
patterned vs idiosyncratic: geographically scattered deviant or criminal behavior
behaviors are carried out in similar ways by individuals who have never met one another, often across scattered geographical areas
patterned vs idiosyncratic: factors increasing the likelihood of deviant behaviors
- sociocultural and subcultural influences often combine to increase the likelihood of certain deviant, criminal, or aggressive behaviors
- ex. behavior & verbal cues, social circumstances, excessive drinking, drug use, etc
patterned vs idiosyncratic: patterns of deviance over time
- deviant or criminal behaviors sometimes become institutionalized or patterned over time, embedding themselves in the sociocultural fabric
- emile durkheim: social facts develop (path dependence)
- more likely to engage in behavior that we’ve been engaging in rather than new behavior without a catalyst
positive vs negative
-Negative consequences on individuals and society at large (deviant behavior is often thought to have negative consequences for particular individuals, and society at large/This is why they are considered deviant and are often criminally punished)
- Deviations from normative modes (In thought and act, deviance is sometimes necessary for problem-solving and to bring about social and political change)
innovative vs routine: innovative forms can be positive or negative
- Positive: Scientific discoveries and breakthroughs, unique literary and artistic contributions, philosophical insights (necessary for the discovery of scientific discoveries/ There is a need to think differently to discover new things, people that did this were once considered deviant
- Negative: forms of criminal deviance (e.g., identity theft tactics, cybercrime, terrorism, cyber-terrorism)
innovative vs routine: routine
routine- acts that do not necessarily involve a concerted effort
- ex. acts of violence, drugs/alc abuse, property crimes
- happening often/having patterned behaviors
individual vs group deviance/crime
-Individual offenses by a lone offender
- Some crimes are more frequently committed by individuals
-E.g., intimate partner violence, murder, sexual assault
- Group deviance
-Some crimes more frequently occur in groups
-E.g., burglary, adolescent drug/alcohol use, some property crimes - Organized criminal activity: Includes organized crime, corporate malfeasance, and terrorism (even entire states)
episodic vs chronic: situational deviance
- deviant/criminal behavior can be confined to certain situations (taking on an episodic form) or can be more chronic
- Some extreme situations can give rise to deviant or criminal behavior in which individuals would not otherwise engage
episodic vs chronic: persistent deviance
deviance or crimes that occur across situations, or transcend situational boundaries
episodic vs chronic: chronic deviance
- deviance or criminal behavior which persists across a wide range of social situations
- ex. substance abuse resulting from addiction
Emile Durkheim
- one of the founders of modern sociology
- argued that deviance was vitally important to society
- in other words: crime and deviance are not pathological elements of society but are vitally important to its survival
functions of deviant behavior
identity, warning of the need for social change, scapegoat and tension release, and deviant behavior provides a means for employment
Deviance can provide a sense of identity
- involvement in certain forms of deviance can provide a sense of identity to people who are unable to gain status or recognition through legitimate means
- example: gangs, they can provide a sense of belonging and identity
- teens who are otherwise unsuccessful in school, who are excluded from athletics, or who cannot excel otherwise are often attracted to gangs because they provide a sense of belonging, recognition, and identity
Warning of the need for social change
- mass deviance: urban riots or organized acts of civil disobedience often signal a legitimate need for social change
- rapid increases in crime, illicit drugs, and “waves” of suicidal behavior, etc. may signal the need for greater societal attention to a social problem
- E.g., the Opioid epidemic/crisis
- Caused by the way opioids were being prescribed
- E.g., the Opioid epidemic/crisis
scapegoating and tension release
- those who commit acts of deviance or crime are sometimes segregated from society, treated in demeaning ways, and stigmatized with labels
- labels can then become the “master status”
- once the label of a “felon” or a “criminal” is applied, it often becomes the master status of a person
Deviant behavior provides a means of employment
- The criminal justice system alone employs hundreds of thousands of people in federal, state, and local law enforcement; courts; correctional institutions; and community-based programs
- Psychiatric institutions, therapeutic communities, and public and private agencies employ a vast number of medical personnel, psychologists, social workers, counselors, and therapists attempting to care for and impact those who have been labeled as deviant
the pre-modern era
- characterized by the belief that deviant and criminal behavior was the result of demonic possession
- people believed that metaphysical and spiritual forces resulted in deviant behavior
- the causes of social behavior were believed to lie within the makeup of human beings and the social milieu in which they lived
growth of positivism
- during the enlightenment, the growth of positivism led to the rethinking of causes of social behavior and the structure of social life
-positivism= philosophical approach to the study of society that relies on what can be observed and emphasizes empirical scientific evidence - faith in the importance of reason and science replaced non-empirical beliefs in supernatural influences
scientific method steps
observation, hypothesis development, data collection, analysis, and hypothesis testing
the modern age
looks to evidence-based behavior analysis to understand deviant and criminal behavior
what are the three traditional theoretical perspectives
- the classical school
- the school reaction, or labeling perspective
- social control theory
what is a theory?
- theory approaches science as causally related phenomena
- a fundamental assumption of science is that phenomena in the world are knowable through our senses and are causally related to one another
what is a scientific theory?
a set of interrelated and interdependent propositions designed to predict a given phenomenon
what is a proposition?
a statement of the relationship between two variables or phenomena in the empirical world
- propositions are subject to change
What did Ronald Akers do?
he was a sociological theorist that set forth criteria essential for the evaluation of a scientific theory of crime and deviance
what are the criteria essential to evaluate theories of crime and deviance?
-logical consistency (refers to the clarity of the concepts or variables that are used to form propositions)
- scope (refers to the “range of phenomena” accounted for by the theory)
-parsimony (refers to the ideal in science to discover the simplest theoretical explanation for the broadest set of occurrences [related to scope, the simpler the better])
- testability (refers to the ability of other scientists to test the theory [this is crucial for a theory to be useful])
-empirical validity (scientifically credible evidence supporting the theory)
-usefulness/policy implications (this is critical, addressing crime is expensive and public officials and policymakers often want to know the most cost-effective means
what social philosophers developed the classical school of thought?
cesare beccaria & jeremy bentham
according to Beccaria, individuals hold 3 basic characteristics:
1) free will - the idea that humans are in control of their own decisions
2) rationality - acting and refraining as deliberate processes (different btwn people)
3) manipulability - the rational pursuit of self-interest
what is hedonism?
underlying the decision to act
what is the hedonistic principle?
people are motivated to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. this is the foundation of the classical school.
how can the hedonistic principle be used to deter criminal behavior?
if you inflict a sufficient amount of pain or discomfort on the offender, it could deter criminal behavior
- punishment should exceed the benefits they receive from committing the crime
rational and situational choice theory
- developed by criminologists derek b cornish and ronald v clarke
- focused on the individual’s conscious, rational decision making
- rationality is bounded
what is target hardening?
can deter criminal behavior by making physical spaces more defensible and less attractive to perpetrators
- ex. cameras, dogs, street lights, cars in the driveway, alarms, lights on, carrying pepper spray, strength in numbers, holding a taser
- others have argued that target hardening may lead to crime displacement
what is crime displacement?
changing the location of criminal behavior to a more conducive environment
routine activities theory
- founded by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson
- Individual lifestyle influences the likelihood of becoming a victim of criminal activity, including the presence of three factors in particular (suitable target, motivated offender, lack of guardianship/absence of capable guardians)
seduction of crime
- founded by jack katz
- the exhilaration and excitement that accompanies committing a criminal act can be inherently motivating
- related to the notion of hedonism - can be an important part of calculus
what is symbolic interaction theory?
- formed by Charles Horton Cooley and George Herbert Mead
- put forth the idea that our sense of self is the result of an interactional process
- it is through this process that we acquire meaning and self-definition
what is cooley’s concept of the looking-glass self?
- noted that the qualities that we assign to ourselves are those that we think others assign to us
The process of defining and redefining oneself is a lifelong process
- can happen instantaneously and during quick interactions (interpersonal violence) OR can happen in early life and have long-term adverse effects
- yet the effects of negative labeling in early life may well have long-term adverse effects
- constantly occurring in life, changing your viewpoint on yourself or others
what is primary deviance?
- typically refers to minor norm violations
- ex. petty theft, graffiti, public drunkenness
- most people engage in primary deviance at some point
what is secondary deviance?
primary deviance becomes secondary deviance when the individuals primary deviance becomes publicly known and the person adjudicated as criminal
what is self-derogation?
the process by which one accepts the negative judgments of others
what is the theory of reintegrative shaming?
- challenged many of the assumptions about crime deterrence and the rehabilitation of offenders
- occurs when the community conveys its disapproval of a person’s deviant behavior but maintains respect for the individual
- stigmatization is disintegrative shaming in that the person is labeled criminal for their behavior
what is the basic premise of control theory?
social bonds deter delinquent and criminal behavior
- travis hirschi argued that, rather than trying to discover why people engage in deviance, we should be seeking to understand why people DONT commit crime more frequently
what are the four basic social bonds?
- attachment: strength of bonds to family and other pro-social relationships
- commitment: level of dedication to conventional norms goals and institutions
- involvement: level of involvement in conventional activities (after-school sports, etc)
- belief: in the validity of mainstream values and norms
the stronger one’s bonds are to individuals and conventional social life, the less likely they are to engage in deviant behavior
control theory-general theory of crime
- gottfredson and hirschi
- focuses on self-control, rather than bonds to conventional social life
- low self-control
- an orientation toward the present, rather than the future (short sightedness)
- attraction to physical, rather than mental activities
- insensitivity to the suffering of others (self-centeredness)
- intolerance for frustration
- inclination toward risk-taking and opportunism
sampson and laub’s theoretical approach
- aims to understand the persistence and resistance of criminal activity across the life span
- proposed that changes in social bonds between an individual and conventional society across the life course accounts for variations in criminal and deviant behavior
- military service = knife event, takes you out of your life, all bonds are disrupted
- ex. marriage,kids, employment, loss of employment, divorce, school
What is the conflict perspective?
- conflict can occur on several social levels (international, regional, cultural, subcultural, intergroup, interpersonal)
- conflict may be deviant or a precursor to other forms of deviant behavior
- focuses on ways in which social conflicts affect the prevalence of criminal offending and criminal behavior
What is the Marxist analysis of social structure?
- society consists of two conflicting classes
1) bourgeoise - the owners of the means of production (wealthy, in control, have power)
2) proletariat - the working class (works for the bourgeoise) - these classes are the root of social inequality
- structural inequality results from the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of the bourgeoise, their exploitation of the proletariat, and their ability to manipulate the legal system to their advantage
What are Sellin’s conduct norms?
- deviance arises when the conduct norms of one cultural group or subculture clash with another
- conflicts in conduct norms may occur under three conditions
1) when 2 cultural groups are in close proximity and the conduct norms of one group conflict with the neighboring group
2) when the laws of a dominant cultural group govern the activities of a subordinate group
3) when members of one culture group move into an area governed by another cultural group - people who violate the norms of another may elicit various forms of informal social control or even be criminally adjudicated (formal social control)
- ex. gossip, ridicule, ostracism
What is Turk’s conflict model?
Criminal transgressions of the less powerful members of society are more likely to be criminalized than those of the powerful
- Blue-collar offenses: burglary, robbery, assault, and battery
- Result more often in official legal sanctioning than do white-collar crimes (e.g., embezzlement, insider trading, price-fixing)
According to Turk, under what conditions is social conflict most likely to occur?
- When there are marked differences in cultural values
- Less powerful members of society are well-organized and committed to advancing their cause
What is Quinney’s theory of the social reality of crime?
- The understanding of crime involves two related processes:
- Legally defining criminal behaviors as criminal
- Imposing the label of “criminal” on those who engage in such behaviors
- Criminal and delinquent behaviors are social constructions fabricated by the dominant economic class to control the working masses
What is Thio’s power theory of deviance?
- Deviance may be viewed along a range of lower to higher consensus acts
- The higher the consensus, the less the ambiguity about the potential or actual harm that results from the deviant behavior
What are Thio’s three primary propositions?
1) the more power people have, the more likely they will be to engage in lower consensus deviance with a lower probability of being labeled deviant
2)It is more likely that the powerful will engage in lower consensus deviance and the powerless will commit higher consensus deviance
3) Deviance by the powerful induces deviance by the powerless that, in turn, contributes to deviance by the powerful
What is Hagan’s conceptualization of social class as a product of power relations?
- the social class of workers is defined by the extent to which they own a business or can exercise authority over other workers
- owners are in a position to commit larger crimes than employees
- think about relational dynamics and the ability to exercise some sort of power over other people
Feminist theory - Daly and Chelsey-Lind
- Feminist theorists raised concerns about the generalization of crime theories based on studies that were limited to male offenders
- Also drew attention to the disproportionate involvement of men in most forms of criminal and deviant activity
Feminist theory - Male dominance
- Patriarchy is seen as the prevailing social structure, with male dominance permeating all aspects of social life, both conventional and deviant
- Thus, theories of crime and deviance must include consideration of the complex issues related to gender inequities and their consequences
What was Durkheim’s perspective on functionalism?
- viewed crime and deviance as normal occurrences in society
- claimed that a society without crime is not possible, as deviance is indispensable to the normal evolution of morality and the law
- the collective conscience of society is reaffirmed by the ways in which it responds to deviant acts
What are the three types of functions of deviance?
manifest, latent, and dyfunctions
manifest function
Observed consequences of a given patterned and repetitive action that make for the adaptation or adjustment of a given system which are intended and recognized by participants in the system
latent function
Observed consequences of a given patterned and repetitive action that make for the adaptation or adjustment of a given system which is neither intended nor recognized by participants in the system
dysfunctions
Observed consequences of a given patterned and repetitive action that lessen the adaptation or adjustment of a given system
social integration
the extent to which persons were bound into or isolated from social life
social regulation
the extent to which individuals are required to follow the guidelines for their behavior established by the group
as social integration rises, social regulation ______.
rises
What is Merton’s theory of social structure and anomie?
- Merton argued that most people are socialized to want the same cultural goals, but not all have the institutionalized means to attain those goals
- This disassociation can lead to anomie, which is a potential precursor to deviant behavior
- Anomie is experienced as strain, stress, or tension that requires some form of adaptation.
- not everyone has the means to achieve the american dream, so they will resort to deviance as a means to achieve their goals.
What are the five adaptations to anomie?
- Conformity: acceptance of institutionalized means to culturally approved goals
- Innovation: acceptance of the culturally approved goals, but a rejection of the institutionalized means to achieve them
- Ritualism: Lowering one’s expectations for success to a level that is more readily attainable
- Retreatism: Rejection of both the culturally approved goals and the institutionalized means for achieving them
- Rebellion: Rejection of both the institutionalized means and culturally approved goals, followed by the adoption of new means and new goals
what are the three subcultures of formulation of differential illegitimate opportunities according to Cloward and Ohlin?
- Criminal subcultures: provide opportunities for engaging in crimes of theft, drug dealing, and other forms of profitable illicit activities
- Violent subcultures: occur when opportunities for profitable criminal activities are not available. In these subcultures, participants rely on their physical prowess to gain respect
- Retreatist subcultures: occur when there are no opportunities for involvement in crime and participants lack the physical ability to gain status by the use of force
- The use of mind-altering drugs are rituals is common
what is Agnew’s strain theory of deviant behavior?
theoretical formulation based in part on previous conceptions of anomie
according to Agnew what is strain?
- strain is experienced when aspirations and expectations are not consistently linked with their fulfillment
- Source of strain tends to be negative social interaction, involving blockage by others to the attainment of important needs and goals
- Attempts to alleviate these negative emotions may involve engagement in negative behaviors, including crime
What is Shaw and McKay’s cultural transmission theory?
- Drew on Park & Burgess’s “concentric zone model”
- argued that disorganized environments result in crime and deviance
- cultural passing on of values that support delinquent behaviors, from teens currently living in that environment to recent arrivals
- zone of transition (most important)
what is Wolfgang and Ferracuti’s subculture of violence thesis?
- observed that most violent behaviors are spontaneous acts prompted by trivial disputes
- Argued that a subculture of violence places great value on the use of aggression to resolve disputes
- Lack of aggression, within this subculture, can result in ridicule and social isolation
what is Anderson’s Code of the Street?
- Noted that the residents of inner-city Philadelphia could not trust law enforcement, and were forced to rely on an alternative way to ensure their survival (Code of the Street)
- According to the code, survival depends on the ability to gain and maintain respect among other residents of the neighborhood
- Physical appearance (e.g., clothes, jewelry, shoes) also plays an important role in how a person is viewed
what is Miller’s focal concerns theory? What are the six focal concerns?
- Miller studied everyday life in a lower-class subculture and identified six focal concerns which organized the daily life of residents within the inner city:
- Trouble: willingness to engage
- Toughness: prove one is tough/”hard”
- Smartness: wit
- Excitement: willingness to seek out excitement
- Fate: belief that the future is already decided
- Autonomy: emphasis on independence/not being reliant on others
- These concerns increased the likelihood of involvement in crime and deviance among those who subscribed to them
what is Cohen’s theory of status frustration?
Argued that lower-class boys form gangs and commit crimes to obtain a sense of belonging and status otherwise denied to them by schools and other middle-class institutions
what are Sykes and Matza’s techniques of neutralization?
Deviant people routinely deny the social and personal harm caused by behavior by developing techniques of neutralization
What are the five primary techniques of neutralization?
- denial of responsibility
- denial of injury
- denial of the victim
- condemnation of the condemners
- appeal to higher authorities
denial of responsibility
Involves the contention that the blame for one’s deviant behavior lies with
others who have victimized the offender or caused adverse living conditions.
- ex. “It’s his fault”; denial of accountability
denial of injury
Refers to the assertion that the victim was not actually harmed or could well
afford any monetary loss that was incurred by committing the offense.
- ex. “Nobody got hurt”; it was victimless; insurance will cover it
denial of the victim
This means that any wrongdoing is actually justified on the grounds that the “victim”
had been involved in previous injurious acts. Justice has then been served by
the act of retribution against the original offender.
- ex. Reframing of the victim as the real wrongdoer; reframing the offender as getting revenge; “He got what he deserved”
condemnation of the condemners
Is the view that those who would judge the person as deviant are themselves
guilty of far worse offenses. Therefore, any attempt to negatively label the
person is without merit and should be disregarded.
- ex. Reframing authorities as hypocrites; “Police speed all the time”
appeal to higher authorities
This means that the deviant rejects the argument of conventional society that he
or she is obliged to abide by its laws and moral code. Rather, the offender’s
loyalties lie with an oppositional subculture or group that often expects the
person to engage in criminal or deviant acts.
- ex. appealing to religious beliefs
What is the central tenet of differential association/social learning theories?
- Posits that individuals who are selectively or differentially exposed to delinquent traits are more likely to be delinquent
- While the theory was not originally limited to peers, tests and applications have primarily focused on the influence of peers
What is Sutherland’s 6th proposition?
A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of the law (think of a scale)
How did Burgess and Akers build upon Sutherland’s points?
- Social learning theory emphasizes the role of positive and negative reinforcement in criminal behavior
- Emphasizes the social sources of reinforcement
- Stresses the importance of interpersonal mechanisms of learning, including:
- Imitation: modeling or mimicking the behavior of others
- Vicarious reinforcement: Observing how other people’s behavior is rewarded
Example: Observing the adult status that offending confers on others, drug/alc use they gain status
Seeing people gain status through their own delinquent behavior - Direct reinforcement
Example: Money, admiration from friends
- Behavior is either strengthened by reward and avoidance of punishment OR weakened by aversive stimuli and lack of reward
- Cumulative effect of anticipated/actual rewards and punishments in the past
- Rewards can be social (praise, respect) or tangible (money, objects)
fear of ridicule
- For adolescents, acceptance by peers is an important commodity
- The simple risk of ridicule may be sufficient to provoke participation in behavior that is illegal or dangerous
- To even risk ridicule is to risk expulsion or abandonment by peers (and losing peers means the potential loss of identity, prestige, and social belonging)
- ridicule is a common dominance mechanism (especially in adolescent males)
- the suggestion of illegal behavior may be difficult for an individual to refuse, even when they are not particularly motivated to participate (if they were to refuse that risks losing peer acceptance and social identity)
loyalty
- an important element of peer relationships, for both youth and adults
- Adolescent peer relationships are formative relationships
- Often require greater attention to rules and greater clarity and formality than is necessary for relationships later in life
- one of the most important elements of adolescent friendships is loyalty
- Loyalty also has greater consequences among delinquent or criminal peers
To be disloyal to others or to snitch may threaten personal freedom, livelihood, or even lives - Loyalty and trustworthiness are important traits that offenders seek out when seeking co-offenders
What is meant by the phrase “moral cover”? Which mechanism is especially important in providing
moral cover?
- a moral imperative that supersedes or nullifies the gravity of an act
- can make illegitimate behavior legitimate or dishonorable more honorable
- loyalty is the mechanism especially important in providing moral cover
status
- Denotes prestige or respect within a group, often within some sort of recognized hierarchy
- Status is an important and fragile commodity among adolescents because of the “maturity gap” in teenage years the only potential source of status for many is their same-age peers
- The motivation to be accepted and validated is very strong
- Gang members use crime to fend off attacks to establish the status
Examples:
Duke, a gang member who had been in detention, immediately sought to reestablish his status by provoking a fight with members of a rival gang
Another member, after losing a pool tournament, sought to reestablish his status by robbing and assaulting a stranger
Compliance mechanism
loyalty and ridicule can act as compliance mechanisms that operate to promote conformity, regardless of whether the behavior is legal or not
magnifying mechanism
loyalty and ridicule can act as magnifying mechanisms. in a group, they can transform the behavior of one (or a few) individuals into the behavior of many
what does “saving face” mean?
avoid humiliation, retain respect
What role do witnesses play in peer delinquency?
- when two individuals are alone, insults may be shrugged off or ignored
- BUT when others are present as witnesses, reactions tend to be more aggressive including insults and physical violence
What roles do alcohol and drug use play in peer delinquency and crime?
- Alcohol and marijuana are used by adolescents almost exclusively in group settings
- Many criminal offenses are also committed by persons under the influence of a controlled substance
- Drug use may be the primary motivator for bringing groups together in space and time, other factors may then precipitate delinquency
- Drug use may bring peers together AND stimulate delinquency
- Groups may come together for other reasons
but then engage in substance use while together - Substance use may compound or exacerbate other processes that typically occur in groups
- Other groups may explicitly commit crimes in order to gain money for the purchase of drugs or alcohol
boredom
- Adolescents sometimes find themselves with large blocks of time and few structured tasks to fill them “Idle hands are the devil’s workshop”
- Boredom can, however, be relieved by the company of others, leading peers to congregate and engage in group processes
- Search for excitement may itself lead to participation in illegal activity
- Can provide excitement for the very fact that it is illegal
- Search for excitement may itself lead to participation in illegal activity
- The danger of discovery, heightened emotions, and adrenaline of criminal behavior can relieve boredom
protection
- Each day adolescents attend school with a population that is itself at the peak age for criminality
- Young people (males in particular) sometimes form alliances with peers, which can lead to protection from other males
- Group formation centered on defense calls upon qualities of interpersonal relationships that may facilitate delinquency (ex. loyalty)
- Intergroup conflict can accentuate other mechanisms, like status and respect
- Many gangs originally form out of a motivation for self-protection
