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PSYC 100 > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is psychology?

A

The study of mental processes & behaviours

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2
Q

What are mental processes?

A

Activities of our brain when engaged in thinking, observing the environment, using language

Thinking, imagining, remembering

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3
Q

Levels of psychological analysis

A

-brain: neuronal activity, brain structure, genes
-person: emotions, ideas, thoughts
-group: friends, family, population, culture

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4
Q

Wilhelm Wundt

A

-Father of experimental psychology
•Established the first psychology lab in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany
•Studied psychology through empirically-driven experiments.
•Focused on the study of consciousness
•Developed the psychological paradigm of voluntarism

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5
Q

Edward Titchener

A

developed structuralism as an attempt to try to identify all the elements of consciousness

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6
Q

introspection

A

careful, reflective and systematic observation of the details of mental processes

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7
Q

William James

A

-believed that mental processes were fluid (“stream of consciousness”) instead of fixed elements (structuralist’s viewpoint)

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8
Q

Gestalt psychologists

A

•Consciousness CANNOT be broken down into elements
•Said that we perceive things as whole perceptual units
•The whole is greater than the sum of its parts
•Learning is tied to what we perceive

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9
Q

Sigmund Freud

A

•The belief that peoples’ behaviours are based on their unconscious desires and conflicts
•Freud developed a form of therapy, psychoanalysis, that aimed to resolve unconscious conflicts

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10
Q

Behaviourism

A

Psychological research should only focus on behaviour you can observe

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11
Q

Edward Thorndike

A

Proposed research findings from the study of animals could help explain human behaviour

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12
Q

Ivan Pavlov

A

oDiscovered dogs could learn to associate a bell with an automatic behaviour (e.g., salivating for food)
oCalled classical conditioning

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13
Q

John B. Watson

A

oConducted the “Little Albert” experiment, demonstrating that children (people) could be classically conditioned

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14
Q

B.F. Skinner

A

Developed operant conditioning to shape behaviour
•Used reinforcement to change the frequency of the expression of a behaviour
•Positive reinforcement increases and negative reinforcement decreases the likelihood of a behaviour occurring

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15
Q

Albert Bandura

A

Described learning by social observation in children
•We now know that this type of learning can be observed in several species of primates

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16
Q

Carl Rogers

A

humanistic psychology
-• Developed “client-centred therapy”
• The client is an equal, and a client’s
thoughts and feelings should be
mirrored
• The atmosphere should have
unconditional support and positive
regard

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17
Q

Positive Psychology

A

•New psychological movement that studies human strengths, fulfillment, and creativity

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18
Q

Cognitive Psychology

A

Revitalization of Study of the Mind

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19
Q

Ulric Neisser

A

coined the term “cognitive psychology” as the study of information processing
•The role of mental processes in how people process information, develop language, solve problems, and think
•Cognitive psychologists compared the human mind to a computer

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20
Q

Psychobiology/Neuroscience

A

Exploring the Origins of the Mind

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21
Q

Donald Hebb

A

Canadian scientist that developed the concept of a cell assembly
•Neurons develop networks of connections based on experiences as we develop and interact with our environments

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22
Q

Pseudo-psychology (pseudoscience)

A

No use of the scientific method when commenting on human behaviour and mental processes

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23
Q

Deductive Reasoning

A

theory > predictions > observation/experiment

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24
Q

Inductive Reasoning

A

observation/experiment > predictions > theory

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25
Q

hypothetico-deductive reasoning

A

hypothesis > observation\experiment > hypothesis supported or not supported: theory built

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26
Q

Statistics

A

Describe and measure relationships between variables

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27
Q

Descriptive research

A

Descriptive research is defined as a research method that involves observing behavior to describe attributes, objectively and systematically.

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28
Q

Correlational Research

A

-correlations indicate if there is a
relationship between the variables. Bivariate data.

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29
Q

experimental research

A

Statistics indicate if the
hypothesis has been supported or if there is a meaningful
difference between the groups

30
Q

Operational definitions

A

are used to clarify precisely what is meant by each variable

31
Q

Reliability

A

Does the test give consistent outcomes each time?

32
Q

Validity

A

Does the test really measure what it purports to measure?

33
Q

Self-report methods

A

–Structured interviews: researcher asks set series of questions
–Structured questionnaires: questions/answers are written
–Clinical method: free-form interview

34
Q

Limitations

A

–Not useful with very young children
–Honesty/accuracy?
–Interpretation of question

35
Q

●Observational methods

A

–Naturalistic: observing children in natural surroundings (e.g., home, school)
–Time-sampling: frequency of behaviour recorded in brief observation intervals
–Structured observation: a laboratory situation designed to elicit specific behaviour

36
Q

Limitations

A

–Observer influence
–May be difficult to determine cause of behaviour

37
Q

●Case studies

A

–Detailed record of an individual/group’s development
•Interviews
•Observations
•Generally not standardized

38
Q

limitations

A

Difficult to make comparisons
–Generalizability

39
Q

●Ethnography

A

–Common method in anthropology
–Researcher lives in community for period of time
–Goal is to understand effect of culture on development

40
Q

●Limitations

A

–Highly subjective
–Generalizability to other cultures

41
Q

Psychophysiological methods

A

–Goal to understand biological processes involved in perception, cognition, emotion
–Measures used include
•heart rate;
•ERPs;
•fMRI;
•eye tracking.

42
Q

Cross-sectional design

disadvantages

A

–People of different ages studied at the same point in time
–One task; multiple age groups participate

•Is there a difference between age groups? Cohort effects?

43
Q

Longitudinal design

disadvantages

A

–Same participants observed repeatedly over time
–Time period may be brief (6 months–1 year)
•Some have lasted decades

Practice effects? Selective attrition? Nonrepresentative sample? Cohort effect?

44
Q

Sequential design

A

Combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal
•Participants of different ages selected at outset
(like cross-sectional)
•All participants observed repeatedly for a period of time (like longitudinal)

45
Q

●Measures of central tendency

A

typical or average score in a distribution

46
Q

mean
median
mode

A

arithmetic average of scores

score falling in the exact center

most frequently occurring score

47
Q

Experimental Analyses

A

Cause and Effect

48
Q

Descriptive statistics

A

describe the data

49
Q

Standard deviation

A

how much the participants’ scores vary from one another

50
Q

Variability

A

how much scores vary from each other and from the mean

51
Q

Standard deviation

A

statistical index of how much scores vary within a group.

52
Q

Correlational design

A

Goal: to determine whether two things are related

Gather data: interview about TV habits, make observations of aggressive behaviours to peers.
•Calculate correlation coefficient, r

53
Q

Descriptive Statistics: Correlation

A

●When two variables are related to each other, they are correlated
●Correlation = numerical index of degree of relationship
–Correlation expressed as a number between 0 and 1
–Can be positive or negative
–Numbers closer to 1 (+ or –) indicate stronger relationship

54
Q

●What is r?

A

–Index of strength and direction of relation
–Varies from −1.00 → +1.00
•Strength indicated by absolute value
–+0.70 and −0.70 are equally strong, and both are stronger than +0.35 and −0.35
•Which is stronger: +0.25 or −0.64?
–Direction indicated by sign
•+ means that, as one variable’s value ↑, the other variable also ↑.
•− means that, as one variable’s value ↑, the other variable ↓ (an inverse relationship).
–r = 0.0 means no relationship exists.

55
Q

Correlation coefficient

A

– the strength and nature of the relationship (-1.00 to +1.00)

56
Q

Positive correlation

A

when one variable increases, the other increases. When one variable decreases the other variable decreases.

57
Q

Negative correlation

A

when one variable increases, the other decreases

58
Q

Interpreting Scatterplots: Strength

A

Another important component to a scatterplot is the streneth of the
relationship between the two variables.
The slope provides information on the strength of the relationship.

59
Q

Correlation is NOT Causation

A

Research has found a strong correlation between stress and clinical depression. However, this correlation does not tell us whether stress causes depression, depression causes stressful events, or other factors such as poverty produce both stress and depression.

60
Q

Experimental Research

A

Examines how one variable (IV) CAUSES another variable to change (DV).
•Advantages:
oCan establish cause and effect
oCan eliminate outside influences
•Disadvantages:
oMight not be generalizable
sometimes unethical

61
Q

Experimental group

A

the group that is exposed to the IV (manipulation or treatment)

62
Q

Control group

A

the group that isn’t exposed to the IV; this group is used to compare how the IV changes the DV

63
Q

Random assignment

A

oThe researcher should randomly assign who goes in which group
oHelps groups be balanced in terms of any other factor that could influence the results

64
Q

Experimental control

A

–Confounding variable: extraneous factor influencing outcome of experimental design
–Random assignment: unbiased procedure for assigning participants to groups
–Ecological validity: assesses whether conclusions drawn from laboratory studies apply to the real world

65
Q

Experimental Research:
Looking for Causes

A

●Experiment = manipulation of one variable under controlled conditions so that resulting changes in another variable can be observed
–Detection of cause-and-effect relationships
●Independent variable (IV) = variable manipulated
●Dependent variable (DV) = variable affected by manipulation
–How does X affect Y?
–X = independent variable, Y = dependent variable

66
Q

Variations in Designing Experiments

A

●Expose a single group to two different conditions
– Reduces extraneous variables
●Manipulate more than one independent variable
– Allows for study of interactions between variables
●Use more than one dependent variable
–Obtains a more complete picture of effect of the independent variable

67
Q

The natural (or quasi-) experiment

disadvantages

A

Measures impact of a naturally occurring event

Cannot draw conclusions regarding causation

68
Q

Inferential statistics

A

– help to draw conclusions about the data

69
Q

Problems That Can Occur with Experimental Research

A

●Sampling bias
●Placebo effects
●Distortions in self-reported data:
–Social desirability bias (Hawthorne Effect)
–Response set
●Experimenter bias
–The double-blind solution

70
Q

Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental Research

A

●Advantages:
–Conclusions about cause-and-effect can be drawn
●Disadvantages:
–Artificial nature of experiments
–Ethical and practical issues
●Field experiments
–Research studies that use settings that are very much like real life

PSYC 100 (3 decks)

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