Exam 1 Flashcards
Clever Hans
A horse who was claimed to perform arithmetic tests but really was just watching the reaction of his trainer
Process of a scientific study
Theory, Research Questions, Research Designs, Hypothesis, Data
Theory
A proposal of how things work together
Research Questions
Questions that needs to be answered to determine if theory is correct
Research Designs
A set of method investigating these questions
Hypothesis
A specific prediction about what will happen in the context of the research design
Operationalize
Translate the variable we want to assess into quantifiable measurements
Correlation
Insight into relationship between two variables, runs from -1 to 1
Third variable
Usually hidden variable causing a correlation between two variables
Key parts of an experiment
Manipulation, Measurements, Control of extraneous factors, Randomization/Random assignment
Manipulation
The variable we change between conditions
Control of extraneous factors
Control
Measurements
Operationalize and measure
Randomization/Random Assignments
Randomly assignment
Strengths of Correlation
Widely applicable, naturalistic
Weakness of Correlation
The directionality problem –> cannot infer causation
Strengths of Experiments
Can infer causation
Weakness of Experiments
Not widely applicable, artificial
Induction
Drawing conclusions from specific observations
Key cornerstones of psychology
Accuracy, consistency, scope, simplicity, fruitfulness
Falsifibility
The idea that if something was scientific, it would be able to be proven false
Studies never ____ hypothesis it only ____
prove, support
Inductive reasoning
Taking current observations and drawing conclusion from it
Deductive reasoning
Taking a conclusion or general principles and applying to specific circumstances
Level of Analysis
A single phenomenon can be explained at different levels simultaneously
Generating Causality
Science that is systematic, testable, and generates reliable data allows us to determine causality and generalize our conclusions
Constructivism
knowledge is constructed through an interaction of what we already know and what we experience.
Schema
principles through which we understand the world
Sensorimotor
age 0-2 interaction with the physical world, the here and now, object permanence, the hidden task hiding an object underneath sheets and asking babies to search for it
Preoperational
Age 2- 6. Use of symbolic languages, imagination and language, still struggling to understand multiple schemas and mentally manipulate them, the conservation task with babies not being able to manipulate water volume in their heads
The Concrete Operational Stage
Age 6-12. Begin to think logically about concrete events
Begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
Thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
Begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle
The Formal Operational Stage
12-adult hood Begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems
Begins to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning. Begins to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information. May need formal education to reach this stage.
Egocentrism
Pre operational stage, only understand the world from their perspective
Hill task
Researcher spins the hill and ask the child what the researcher now sees, child only answers with what they see
Hide and seek
Hiding themselves only
False Belief Task
They can’t appreciate that their knowledge is different from someone else’s. If sally hides the ball, she assumes the other kid will know where it is
Habituation method
Getting bored after being shown the same stimulus leads to decreased response with repeated exposure to stimulus. The baby will then dishabituate when greeted with violation of expectation in experiments. This would lead to increase in physiological response as a result
Puppet and babies
Using habituation method, it is shown that babies can understand numbers
Dishabituate
Increase in physiological response based on violation of expectation
Theory of mind
The ability to attribute mental states to oneself and understanding that others can have different mental states. Habituation shows understanding of intention at 6 months
Behavioral studies show understanding of preference at 18 months.
Core knowledge
perhaps we come into the world with biases
Vygosty vs Piaget
Vygotsy saw children as apprentices while Piaget saw children as explorers/scientists.
Is childhood development more quantitative (progressive) or qualitative (stages)
Diamond in 1985 found that with the object permanence task at 6 months, infants show knowledge if waiting time is shorter.
Early infant shows surprise.
At 6 months the waiting time is 2 seconds.
At 7 months the waiting time is 4 seconds.
The cat dog experiment
A cat is put with a dog mask, demonstration of pre operational stage. 3-6 year olds were fooled while 6 year olds were not.
Stage theory
Belief that children develop in stages
Sociocultural theory
Lev Vygosty, how how other people and the attitudes, values, and beliefs of surrounding culture influence children’s development
Information processing theories
David Klahr examines the mental processes that produce thinking at any one time and the transition process that leads to growth in thinking
Two built in biases that we are born into the world with
Biases for face as seen in ping pong paddles experiment and biases for mother’s voice or similar patterns of speech
why connect to a caregiver
physical and psychological needs
Deprivation of a caregiver
Deprivation of a care giver can have severe effects, detriments to IQ, motor, and thinking
Stress test/strange situation test
The parent and kid are alone in the room
Enter a stranger
Parent leaves infant and stranger alone
Stranger leaves infant is left alone
Stranger returns
Parent returns and stranger leaves
Three measurements
Secure base: How does the infant react to an unfamiliar situation if the attachment figure is present
Separation: How does the infant react when separated from the attachment figure
Reunion: How does the infant react when reunited with the attachment figure after separation?
Secure babies
70% of babies
Secure base: explore when mother is present
Seperation: upset when mother leaves
Reunion: calms down and greets parents when they come back
Insecure Resistant
10% of babies
Secure based: reluctant to explore, anxious
Separation: very upset when mother leaves
Reunion: continues to be upset when mother returns and may seek but reject contact
Insecure avoidant
20% of babies
Secure base: uninterested in exploring the strange environment
Seperation: shows little distress
Reunion: shows little interest when mother returns
Can responsiveness be taught?
Securely attached babies are more responsive and insecure babies are less responsive.
Looking time of responsive and unresponsive care giver is based on the opposite of their respective attachment types; insecure babies look at responsive caregivers more while secure babies look at unresponsive caregivers more.
Caregivers
Emotional attachment to caregivers satisfy their basic needs
Bowlby’s theory
The attachment behavioural system was gradually designed by natural selection to regulate proximity to an attachment figure.
When the attachment figure is perceived to be more responsive, the child is more likely to explore the environment, play with others and be more sociable.
When the attachment figure is perceived to be less responsive, the child experiences anxiety, and is behaviourally likely to exhibit attachment behaviours ranging from simple visual searching on the low extreme to active searching, following, and vocal signalling on the others – This continues until the attachment figures respond positively or until the child gives up
Important of Ainsoworth’s strange situation test
Provided empirical demonstrations of how attachment behaviour is organized in unfamiliar contexts
Provided the first empirical taxonomy of individual differences in infant attachment patterns
Individual differences were correlated with infant parent interactions in the home during the first year of life
Van De Boom’s experiment:
One control group while another received training to be more responsive
Parents in control group rated infants as less responsive and attentive in their interaction with infants, leading to “worse” infants
Parents in intervention groups were more attentive and rated infants as more sociable, self soothing, and more likely to explore the environment.
Erickson’s Theory
In each stage of life, there is a psychological struggle or crisis.
How we manage this crisis leads to ego strengths or weaknesses.
Failure/success becomes cumulative.
Erickson’s Theory’s eight psychosocial stages
Trust vs mistrust 0-2
Autonomy vs shame and doubt 2-4
- Do I have control over myself
initiative vs Guilt 4-6
- Can I make things happen effectively
Industry vs inferiority 6-12
- Do I measure up
Identity vs role confusion 12-early 20s
- Who am I
Intimacy vs isolation 20s-40s
- Can I love and be loved in return
Generativity vs stagnation 40s-60s
- Will I create something that will outlast me
Integrity vs despair 60-80s
- Did I have the life I really wanted
Challenge to Erickson’s Theory
Identity crises, issues of industry, generativity, and so on are not limited to one stage or age.
Erikson’s stages do not occur in the same sequence for everyone.
Modern life may be lengthening certain stages or creating new stages.
Tools for studying changes
Cross sectional studies
- Testing different age groups, creating samples from these age groups
- Unable to test casual effects
Longitudinal studies
- Test the same group different times throughout a long period of time
- Suffers from cohort effect, the generation suffering from the same events leading to inaccurate results
- Randomizing will only solve in group biased but not cohort bias
Negative changes surrounding aging
Cognitive functioning
Socioemotional function → friend group dies off (literally lol)
Physical functioning
Positive changes surrounding aging
More skillful use of many cognitive functions.
Happiness → Positive emotions at age
People become more emotionally stable as they age
Socioeconomic Selectivity Theory
The older we get the more we think about
- how much time do we have left
- Younger people focus on the future versus older people focus on the present
- Our emotions get more positive
- We live in the moment
Crystalized Knowledge
Skills that improve with age, such as vocabulary tests, solving problems, or understanding texts.
Fluid Knowledge
Cognitive function that becomes worse with age, working memory, logical reasoning, reaction time.
Working memory become less efficient Processing speed become slower
Ability to focus while eliminating other factors decline with age and explain age differences in cognitive task performance
Autobiographical Narratives
How individuals uniquely distinguish themselves
These narrative enhance self esteem and guide individuals
In older age, characteristics are often determined by life review and reflections about having live a long life
Subjective age
Multidimensional construct that indicates how old (or young) a person feels and into which age group a person categorizes him or herself in.
As one gets older after adulthood, the gap between subjective and actual age increases
After age 40, people report feeling 20% younger than their actual age
Healthier aging
Accepting one’s aging biologically and feeling younger than they are is a sign of healthy aging
Carstensen’s Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
As we get older, we change our motivation behind socialization, from socializing to gather information to socializing for emotional support
Hedonic Well being
emotional component of well-being and includes measures of positive and negative effects.
6 core dimensions of well being
environmental mastery, autonomy, personal growth, purpose in life, positive relations
what is personality
An individual’s characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior, together with the biological, psychological, and social mechanisms behind those patterns.
Sigmund Freud’s three consciousness
Conscious, unconscious, preconscious
Sigmund Feud’s unconscious struggle
Id - pleasure, Ego - decision maker, Super Ego - what is realistic
Freud’s legacy
Our feelings, thoughts and behaviors are influenced by external factors.
Early life experiences particularly with caregivers can shape development into adulthood.
The therapeutic value of talking/expression
The mind-body connection: our physical health can be shaped by psychological forces
We experience conflicting motivations and desires, development is a process of managing these conflicts.
Delay of gratification
At age 4, the delay of gratification is associated with higher SAT scores later on in life.
Delay gratification causes
reliable vs unreliable, if there is a more secure attachment, we trust the world more and have a delayed gratification – the crayon experiment
Factor analysis
openness
conscientiousness
extraversion
agreeableness
neuroticism
Twin studies
shows genetic factors
The three
Quality of attachment –> delayed gratification –> achievement
Factor analysis
can we identify different factors that gel together?
Criterias that characterize personality traits
Consistency - consistent across all situations and behaviours
Stability - stable across time
Individual differences - highly depends on frequency of usage
Five factor model founding
lexicon founded it
subtraits of the big five traits
facets
how many facets?
no widely accepted to be agreed upon, a lot
Hans Eyesneck
Suggested that extroversion and neuroticism are the two most important – linking with biological reasons such as introverts receive too much stimulus
HEXACO model
a reversion of the big five traits, adds humility and honesty as the sixth dimensional trait
importance of context
context will determine a person’s action, therefore, personality becomes hard to measure. One must aggregate behaviours, a refute against trait theorists.
